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	<title>EcoNoir &#187; Teórie</title>
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		<title>Je ekonómia vedou? Aký je rozdiel medzi vedcom a „vedcom“?</title>
		<link>http://www.econoir.sk/2011/02/11/je-ekonomia-vedou-aky-je-rozdiel-medzi-vedcom-a-%e2%80%9evedcom%e2%80%9c/</link>
		<comments>http://www.econoir.sk/2011/02/11/je-ekonomia-vedou-aky-je-rozdiel-medzi-vedcom-a-%e2%80%9evedcom%e2%80%9c/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 10 Feb 2011 22:37:31 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Radovan Kavicky</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Teórie]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Top]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.econoir.sk/?p=1038</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Autori: Radovan Kavický a Martin Vlachynský Zaujímavé otázky. Ťažko povedať, či pre každého na ne dáme aj uspokojivé odpovede, ale každopádne sa o to v nasledujúcich riadkoch pokúsime. Najprv si však zahráme jednu hru. TEST/HRA 1 Na stole ležia nasledujúce štyri karty: Zdroj: autori Úloha: Rozhodnite, ktorú kartu/karty treba otočiť, aby sme zistili či pravidlo [...]


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			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Autori: Radovan Kavický a Martin Vlachynský</p>
<p>Zaujímavé otázky. Ťažko povedať, či pre každého na ne dáme aj uspokojivé odpovede, ale každopádne sa o to v nasledujúcich riadkoch pokúsime.</p>
<p>Najprv si však zahráme jednu hru.</p>
<p>TEST/HRA 1<br />
Na stole ležia nasledujúce štyri karty:</p>
<h5><a href="http://www.econoir.sk/wp-content/uploads/rk_econoir_2011_iq69.jpg"><img width="438" height="142" alt="" src="http://www.econoir.sk/wp-content/uploads/rk_econoir_2011_iq69.jpg" title="rk_econoir_2011_iq69" class="size-full wp-image-1040" /></a><br />
Zdroj: autori</h5>
<p><strong>Úloha:</strong><br />
Rozhodnite, ktorú kartu/karty treba otočiť, aby sme zistili či pravidlo platí, alebo nie.</p>
<p><strong>Popis pravidla: </strong><br />
Každá karta má písmeno na jednej strane a číslo na druhej. Dve z kariet sú otočené tou stranou, kde je písmeno a zvyšné dve tou, kde je číslo. Pravidlo, ktoré máte overiť je nasledujúce: Pre tieto štyri karty platí, že ak má karta na jednej strane samohlásku, má na druhej strane párne číslo.</p>
<p><strong>Riešenie: </strong><br />
Tým z vás, ktorí skočili rovno k časti riešenie (áno, asi veľká časť z vás) odporúčame vrátiť sa znova k predchádzajúcemu textu, vyriešiť najprv úlohu a poznačiť si výsledok na papier. Inak tento test/hra nemá význam a odpoveď na otázku v nadpise sa nedozviete. Pre tých z vás, ktorí však tak už urobili tu teda mám krátky komentár k správnemu riešeniu.</p>
<p>Štatistiky nepustia. Väčšina ľudí dôjde k nesprávnemu riešeniu a navyše je pre nich pomerne ťažké zistiť prečo. Približne polovica vyrieši úlohu tak, že treba otočiť karty I a 6 s argumentom, že pod samohláskou sa môže ukrývať párne číslo a pod kartou s párnym číslom sa môže ukrývať samohláska. Ďalších približne 20 percent ľudí sa podľa štatistík rozhodne otočiť iba kartu I aby overila platnosť pravidla. No a ďalších približne 20 percent ľudí sa rozhodne pre iné zo zvyšných nesprávnych riešení. Čiže približne 90 percent ľudí vôbec nedôjde k správnemu riešeniu.</p>
<p>Toľko štatistiky. Teraz sa však pozrime na to, aké je správne riešenie, kde je teda problém a prečo pri rozhodovaní toľkí zlyhali. Voľba z kariet otočených tou stranou, kde je písmeno, bola u väčšiny správna (zvolili kartu I). Problém nastal pri voľbe spomedzi kariet otočených číselnou stranou (okolo 50 percent zvolilo kartu 6). Prečo je nesprávna voľba karty 6? Prečítajte si ešte raz pravidlo. Tam sa vraví, že karta, ktorá má na jednej strane samohlásku, má na druhej strane párne číslo. Nehovorí však nič o tom, že by karta, ktorá má na jednej strane párne číslo by mala mať na druhej strane samohlásku (okrem iného to platí aj preto, že pravidlo nič nehovorí o spoluhláskach a teda nie je ani potrebné otáčať kartu Q). Takže ak by sme aj našli spoluhlásku na druhej strane karty 6, nepovedalo by nám to nič o tom, či pravidlo platí, alebo nie. Ale naopak, karta 9, nad ktorou drvivá väčšina ľudí ani len neuvažuje, je kľúčová k správnemu riešeniu. Karta 9 totiž môže mať na druhej strane samohlásku. A ak má, pravidlo by sa ukázalo ako neplatné (na jednej strane karty samohláska a na druhej nepárne číslo). Skrátene, karta 9 musí byť taktiež otočená (okrem karty I), aby sme si boli istí, že pravidlo nie je neplatné ani v tomto prípade, teda, že platí.</p>
<p>V tejto jednoduchej hre, či teste, sme práve použili v praxi princíp <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsifiability">falzifikácie</a>, ktorý rozpracoval najmä <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Popper">Karl Popper</a> a je jedným zo základov vedeckého prístupu (resp. toho, čo je za „vedecké“ považované). Podľa jeho názoru je jednoducho iba z pozorovania, ktoré nie je falzifikovateľné môžeme vychádzať a nárabať neskôr s týmito výstupmi ako vedeckým poznatkom, resp. faktom na ktorom môžeme ďalej v teórii stavať. Pokiaľ sa čo i len jedno z pozorovaní vychyľuje (vymyká sa predpokladom modelu) nemôžeme akceptovať záver danej teórie ako všeobecne a vždy platný. Pri overovaní ktorejkoľvek z ekonomických teórií v praxi možno vždy nájsť pozorovanie, ktoré sa vymyká predpokladom. Teória/model v ekonómii tak popisuje nie „zjednodušenú realitu“, ale správanie úplne abstraktné. Napriek tomu sa nesprávne prisudzuje ekonomickým teóriám všeobecná platnosť. Ktorú nemajú. Sú teda vedecké?</p>
<p>Zhruba takýto je náš hlavný argument (ale nielen náš) prečo ekonómiu a prevažnú väčšinu teórií ktoré obsahuje a zahŕňa nie je možné považovať za vedecké. Nemožno tak ani ekonómiu samotnú ako celok za vedu považovať. Dostali sme sa teda už hneď teraz k odpovedi na druhú otázku v nadpise tohto článku. Ekonómia vedou nie je (ak ju berieme ako celok), hoci využíva vedeckú metodiku vrátane analytických postupov.</p>
<p>Ak ale chceme ekonómiu za vedu aj naďalej považovať zostáva nám buď vyčlenenie niektorých teórií z toho, čo sa v súčasnosti ako „ekonómia“ prezentuje (zúženie oblasti skúmania), práca s predpokladmi modelu (kde je možné mnoho zachrániť a taktiež sa to často deje, najmä preto, aby teórií dodatočne bolo možné priznať punc vedeckosti) a okrem dedukcie (ktorá často, predovšetkým v ekonómii, zlyháva) teda aj indukcia a práca s pravdepodobnosťami pri modeloch, kde výstupom nie je jednoznačná predpoveď (Je vôbec v sociálnych vedách, kde ekonómia podľa všeobecne používaného zaradenia patrí, niečo jednoznačné?). Práve toto je v súčasnosti síce nie jediný, ale v celku akceptovateľný prístup ku skúmaniu, hoci napríklad práve ten Popper, ktorého sme už spomenuli, indukciu zamietol (ako nevedeckú metódu skúmania).</p>
<p><strong>TEST/HRA 2</strong><br />
Prvá hra sa páčila? Dajme teda ešte jednu.</p>
<p><strong>Úloha:</strong><br />
Ktorá z troch možných odpovedí je správna?</p>
<p><strong>Popis pravidla:</strong></p>
<p>Štefan pozerá na Evu, ale Eva pozerá na Romana. Štefan je zosobášený, ale Roman nie. Pozerá osoba, ktorá je zosobášená na tú, ktorá zosobášená nie je?</p>
<p>A) Áno B) Nie C) Nie je to možné určiť</p>
<p><strong>Riešenie:</strong><br />
Opäť odporúčame tým, ktorí skočili rovno k tejto časti a dychtia po správnej odpovedi, aby sa ešte raz pokúsili dôjsť ku správnemu riešeniu a zaznačiť si ho pre porovnanie so správnym riešením a zároveň pre poučenie z tejto hry. Hotovo?</p>
<p>Vychádzajúc zo štatistík, väčšina z vás (cca 80 percent) pravdepodobne zvolila možnosť C, teda, že nemáme dostatok informácií na to, aby sme posúdili všetky možnosti a úlohu správne vyriešili. Pôjdeme na to teda logicky. Eva je jediná osoba o ktorej nevieme, či je zosobášená, alebo nie. Zvážme teda obe možnosti, aby sme znova posúdili či máme dosť informácií k tomu aby sme úlohu vyriešili. Ak je Eva zosobášená (bola by zosobášenou osobou, ktorá pozerá na zosobášenú osobu, teda Romana), správnou odpoveďou by teda bola odpoveď A). Ak Eva nie je zosobášená (Štefan, ktorý je zosobášený teda pozerá na Evu, ktorá zosobášenou nie je.), opäť je teda správnou odpoveďou odpoveď A). Tento postup, ktorý nás nakoniec doviedol ku správnemu riešeniu úlohy sa nazýva vylučovacie rozhodovanie/odôvodnenie/argumentácia <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasoning">disjunctive reasoning</a> – rozhodovanie, ktoré zvažuje všetky možnosti. Fakt, že v zadaní nebola informácia, či je Eva zosobášená naviedol toho, kto chcel úlohu čo najrýchlejšie vyriešiť k tomu, že nadobudol presvedčenie, že nemá dostatok informácií pre správne rozhodnutie a teda zvolil možnosť C) bez toho, aby zvážil všetky možnosti. K tomuto vo všeobecnosti zvádzajú všetky otázky v prípadoch ak je aspoň jedna z možných odpovedí postavená podobne.</p>
<p>Pre tých z vás, ktorí sa vede momentálne venujú a náhodou nevyriešili na prvýkrát ani jednu z úloh to neznamená, že nie sú vedcami. Tento text má skôr ambíciu byť impulzom nielen pre vás, ale pre všetkých, ktorí sa vede na venujú, k tomu, aby mierne poupravili svoj prístup k riešeniu jednotlivých problémov.</p>
<p>Často sa totiž žiaľ stáva, že človek prepláva vysokou školou bez toho, aby si osvojil aspoň základné princípy vedeckej činnosti a vypestoval „vedecký skepticizmus“ voči všetkému čo je objektom jeho skúmania (veda sa tak často približuje skôr viere v nespochybniteľné pravdy a trvá tak pomerne dlho než príde niekto, kto prevládajúcu teóriu vyvráti, alebo len napadne).</p>
<p>Celý systém výuky (nielen na Slovensku a taktiež nielen v rámci ekonómie), skôr nabáda k tomu, aby sa podporovala racionalita pri rozhodovaní a rozvíjala schopnosť formulovať racionálne predpoklady. Áno, táto časť je pre vedu nevyhnutá, ale nie postačujúca. Racionalita však nie je to isté čo inteligencia a už vôbec nie kreativita. A to, čo je kľúčové v modernej vede je predovšetkým rozvoj inteligencie a kreativity. Výučba metodiky áno, ale nie vedenie k schematickému mysleniu. Podpora kreativity pri riešení problémov rozhodne, ale taktiež je potrebné ju uplatniť už pri samotnom prístupe k týmto riešeniam.</p>
<p>Kríza je skvelou výzvou. Svet sa totiž neustále mení a v súčasnosti už skutočne nestačí ani len to, čo postačovalo ešte pred pár rokmi. V najbližších rokoch pred nami stoja nové výzvy a problémy, ktoré si žiadajú nielen našu zaangažovanosť, ale aj originálne prístupy a nové riešenia. Veda tomu čeliť dokáže. Avšak len vtedy, ak sú toho schopní vedci, ktorí ju tvoria, formujú a ďalej rozvíjajú.</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em>&#8220;Discovery consist of seeing what everyone has seen, and thinking what no one has thought.&#8221;</em><br />
&#8211; Albert Szent-Gyori</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Ak niekoho z vás tento článok zaujal a rád by si prečítal niečo podobné k danej téme, odporúčame práce <a href="http://scholar.google.sk/scholar?hl=sk&amp;q=Keith+E.+Stanovich&amp;btnG=H%C4%BEada%C5%A5&amp;as_ylo=&amp;as_vis=0">tohoto pána</a>, <a href="http://scholar.google.sk/scholar?q=Peter+C.+Wason&amp;hl=sk&amp;btnG=H%C4%BEada%C5%A5">tohoto</a> a taktiež <a href="http://scholar.google.sk/scholar?hl=sk&amp;q=Richard+J.+Haier+&amp;btnG=H%C4%BEada%C5%A5&amp;as_ylo=&amp;as_vis=0">tohto</a> (z ktorých sme čerpali aj my pri písaní tohto textu).</p>
<p>V skratke <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_and_intelligence">toto odvetvie neurovedy</a> je obzvlášť zaujímavé a veríme, že zaujme aj vás či iných.</p>
<p>Text nájdete aj <a href="http://kavicky.blogspot.com/2011/02/je-ekonomia-vedou-aky-je-rozdiel-medzi.html">tu</a> a na <a href="http://enhf.euba.sk/web2/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=556&amp;Itemid=58">blogu NHF</a>.</p>
<img src="http://www.econoir.sk/?ak_action=api_record_view&id=1038&type=feed" alt="" />

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		<title>Minimálna mzda</title>
		<link>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/11/01/minimalna-mzda/</link>
		<comments>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/11/01/minimalna-mzda/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 01 Nov 2010 10:52:08 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Martin Vlachynský</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Aktuálne]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Teórie]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Top]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.econoir.sk/?p=961</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Po t&#253;ždni m&#244;j druh&#253; čl&#225;nok z .t&#253;ždňa &#8211; Minim&#225;lna mzda: Nov&#253; diel starej rozpr&#225;vky. Odborn&#233; argumenty pre a proti minim&#225;lnej mzde, empirick&#233; v&#253;skumy, podoby a alternat&#237;vy minim&#225;lnej mzdy, a tiež niečo o minim&#225;lne mzde a r&#243;mskom probl&#233;me. obr&#225;zok: Fouquier Related posts:Vláda vybavuje ženám nezamestnanosť Bojovníci proti kríze: O (ne)účinnosti fiškálnych stimulov Práca cez agentúru a [...]


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			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="http://www.econoir.sk/2010/10/27/nobelova-cena-za-ekonomiu-2010/">Po t&yacute;ždni</a> m&ocirc;j druh&yacute; čl&aacute;nok z .t&yacute;ždňa &#8211; <a href="http://www.tyzden.sk/casopis/2010/43/minimalna-mzda-novy-diel-starej-rozpravky.html">Minim&aacute;lna mzda: Nov&yacute; diel starej rozpr&aacute;vky</a>. Odborn&eacute; argumenty pre a proti minim&aacute;lnej mzde, empirick&eacute; v&yacute;skumy, podoby a alternat&iacute;vy minim&aacute;lnej mzdy, a tiež niečo o minim&aacute;lne mzde a r&oacute;mskom probl&eacute;me.</p>
<p><span id="more-961"></span></p>
<h5><a rel="lightbox[slideshow]" title="fouquier" href="/images/2010/11/fouquier.jpg"><img height="431" width="400" alt="fouquier" src="/images/2010/11/400/fouquier.jpg" /></a><br />
obr&aacute;zok: Fouquier</h5>
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		</item>
		<item>
		<title>Filozofia slobody &#8211; video</title>
		<link>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/09/10/filozofia-slobody-video/</link>
		<comments>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/09/10/filozofia-slobody-video/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 10 Sep 2010 16:12:50 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Martin Vlachynský</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Teórie]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.econoir.sk/?p=855</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Jenoduch&#233; video, ktor&#233; skvele sumarizuje, o čom je libertari&#225;nske pon&#237;manie slobody. Ak sa v&#225;s niekedy niekto op&#253;ta, o čom to teda ten liberalizmus je, miesto nejasn&#233;ho koktania m&#244;žete použiť t&#253;chto p&#225;r viet: A e&#353;te pripom&#237;nam kan&#225;l Tu ne cede malis, kde s&#250; uploadovan&#233; free market vide&#225; so slovensk&#253;mi titulkami. Related posts:Free market videá so slovenskými [...]


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</ol>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Jenoduch&eacute; video, ktor&eacute; skvele sumarizuje, o čom je libertari&aacute;nske pon&iacute;manie slobody. Ak sa v&aacute;s niekedy niekto op&yacute;ta, o čom to teda ten liberalizmus je, miesto nejasn&eacute;ho koktania m&ocirc;žete použiť t&yacute;chto p&aacute;r viet:</p>
<p><object width="425" height="344"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/muHg86Mys7I?fs=1&amp;hl=en_GB"></param><param name="allowFullScreen" value="true"></param><param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"></param><embed src="http://www.youtube.com/v/muHg86Mys7I?fs=1&amp;hl=en_GB" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowscriptaccess="always" allowfullscreen="true" width="425" height="344"></embed></object></p>
<p>A e&scaron;te pripom&iacute;nam kan&aacute;l Tu ne cede malis, kde s&uacute; uploadovan&eacute; <a href="http://www.econoir.sk/2010/09/06/free-market-videa-so-slovenskymi-titulkami/">free market vide&aacute;</a> so slovensk&yacute;mi titulkami.</p>
<img src="http://www.econoir.sk/?ak_action=api_record_view&id=855&type=feed" alt="" />

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<li><a href='http://www.econoir.sk/2010/09/22/video-stossel-michael-moore-funguje-kubanske-zdravotnictvo/' rel='bookmark' title='Permanent Link: Video: Stossel vs. Michael Moore &#8211; Funguje kubánske zdravotníctvo?'>Video: Stossel vs. Michael Moore &#8211; Funguje kubánske zdravotníctvo?</a></li>
<li><a href='http://www.econoir.sk/2010/09/26/nove-videa-so-slovenskymi-titulkami/' rel='bookmark' title='Permanent Link: Nové videá so slovenskými titulkami'>Nové videá so slovenskými titulkami</a></li>
</ol></p>]]></content:encoded>
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		</item>
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		<title>Ružové kravaty a smeti: 10 netradičných ekonomických indikátorov</title>
		<link>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/07/09/netradicne-ekonomicke-indikatory/</link>
		<comments>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/07/09/netradicne-ekonomicke-indikatory/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 08 Jul 2010 23:39:15 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Martin Vlachynský</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Teórie]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Top]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Zaujímavosti]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.econoir.sk/?p=741</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Nezamestnanosť, infl&#225;cia, spotrebiteľsk&#225; d&#244;vera a kopa ďal&#353;&#237;ch ekonomick&#253;ch ukazateľov pom&#225;ha ekon&#243;mom predikovať bud&#250;cnosť (tiež sa tomu hovor&#237; ve&#353;tiť). Ekon&#243;mia je v&#353;ak veda spoločensk&#225;, komplexn&#225; a vlastne vcelku aj vesel&#225;, takže prečo ost&#225;vať pri tak&#253;chto abstraktn&#253;ch kon&#353;truktoch. Niekedy sa stač&#237; obzrieť po ulici a dok&#225;žeme odhadn&#250;ť koniec recesie. Forbes pred časom vybral 10 najnetradičnej&#353;&#237;ch ukazateľov. Ja [...]


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</ol>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Nezamestnanosť, infl&aacute;cia, spotrebiteľsk&aacute; d&ocirc;vera a kopa ďal&scaron;&iacute;ch ekonomick&yacute;ch ukazateľov pom&aacute;ha ekon&oacute;mom predikovať bud&uacute;cnosť (tiež sa tomu hovor&iacute; ve&scaron;tiť). Ekon&oacute;mia je v&scaron;ak veda spoločensk&aacute;, komplexn&aacute; a vlastne vcelku aj vesel&aacute;, takže prečo ost&aacute;vať pri tak&yacute;chto abstraktn&yacute;ch kon&scaron;truktoch. Niekedy sa stač&iacute; obzrieť po ulici a dok&aacute;žeme odhadn&uacute;ť koniec recesie. <a href="http://www.forbes.com">Forbes</a> pred časom vybral 10 najnetradičnej&scaron;&iacute;ch ukazateľov. Ja som ich pre v&aacute;s resuscitoval.</p>
<p><strong>Ružov&eacute; kravaty</strong></p>
<p>Jednoduch&eacute;. Keď kravať&aacute;ci tu&scaron;ia, že je zle, nosia tmav&eacute; ponur&eacute; kravaty. Keď sa časy vylep&scaron;uj&uacute;, vylep&scaron;uje sa aj n&aacute;lada finančn&iacute;kov. A keďže v Lehman Brothers havajsk&eacute; ko&scaron;ele nepovoľuj&uacute;, vač&scaron;ina vyjadr&iacute; svoju roz&scaron;afn&uacute; n&aacute;ladu jedin&yacute;m možn&yacute;m sp&ocirc;sobom &#8211; kravatou. Ružovou, žltou, svetlo fialovou&#8230;Blbosť? Povedzte to Bobobovi Allsbrookovi, hlavn&eacute;mu ekon&oacute;movi Regions Bank. Nezabudol dodať, že v poslednej dobe začali žiariv&eacute; farby op&auml;ť prevl&aacute;dať.</p>
<p><strong>Telekomunikačn&aacute; infra&scaron;trukt&uacute;ra</strong></p>
<p>Dave Maddox vlastn&iacute; niekoľko vysielačov pre mobiln&eacute; siete v USA. Expanzia pokrytia pre niekoľk&yacute;ch oper&aacute;torov z minul&eacute;ho leta podľa neho dala jasn&yacute; sign&aacute;l &#8211; ekonomick&aacute; situ&aacute;cia sa zlep&scaron;&iacute;.</p>
<p><strong>Smeti z re&scaron;taur&aacute;cii</strong></p>
<p>Ľudia v recesii rozm&yacute;&scaron;ľaj&uacute; kde u&scaron;etriť, a rad&scaron;ej si pred telev&iacute;zor zohrej&uacute; mrazen&uacute; pizzu, ako by mali &iacute;sť do re&scaron;taur&aacute;cie, podobne aj pracovn&yacute;ch obedov je pomenej. Keď začn&uacute; kopy smet&iacute; r&aacute;sť, je to sign&aacute;l, že n&aacute;lada sa obracia k lep&scaron;iemu. Trocha menej zap&aacute;chaj&uacute;ca &uacute;prava tohoto indik&aacute;toru hovor&iacute;, že miesto smet&iacute; m&ocirc;žeme rad&scaron;ej sledovať rast a &uacute;padok re&scaron;taur&aacute;cii.</p>
<p><strong>Predaj rifl&iacute;</strong></p>
<p>Alebo tiež pekne po na&scaron;om dž&iacute;nsov. S&uacute; lacn&eacute; (tie v USA, nie v AuParku) a preto je to jedna z prv&yacute;ch vec&iacute;, ktor&uacute; si ľudia po opadnut&iacute; recesie k&uacute;pia, aby si spravili radosť. Marshal Cohen, analytik NPD Group, dod&aacute;va, že predaje v roku 2009 r&aacute;stli asi o 5%.</p>
<p><strong>N&aacute;kupn&eacute; ta&scaron;ky</strong></p>
<p>Už spom&iacute;nan&yacute; Marshal Cohen m&aacute; okrem rifl&iacute; aj in&uacute; z&aacute;ľubu &#8211; sleduje, v koľk&yacute;ch ta&scaron;k&aacute;ch ich ľudia nosia. Samotn&yacute; počet ľud&iacute; v obchodoch totiž nemus&iacute; byť presn&yacute; indik&aacute;tor, vzhľadom k množstvu očumovačov. Preto Cohen v pravideln&yacute;ch intervaloch r&aacute;ta vo vybran&yacute;ch obchodoch, koľko n&aacute;kupn&yacute;ch ta&scaron;iek si ľudia odn&aacute;&scaron;aj&uacute;. V čase najv&auml;č&scaron;&iacute;ch ekonomick&yacute;ch prepadov počet ta&scaron;iek klesol o 20% a e&scaron;te sa st&aacute;le nevr&aacute;til na predrecesn&uacute; mieru.</p>
<p><strong>N&uacute;ten&yacute; predaj nehnutelnost&iacute;</strong></p>
<p>Dobre, toto je trocha podvod na čitateľovi. Tento indik&aacute;tor je pomerne zn&aacute;my a hojne použ&iacute;van&yacute;. Treba v&scaron;ak nielen sledovať pr&iacute;lev nov&yacute;ch domov zabaven&yacute;ch bankami na trh, ale aj odlev t&yacute;ch st&aacute;vaj&uacute;cich. Realitn&yacute; trh v USA sa <a href="http://www.usatoday.com/money/economy/housing/2010-06-10-foreclosures-may_N.htm#chart">ako-tak stabilizoval </a>po dlhom čase, ale st&aacute;le okolo 10% ľud&iacute; s hypot&eacute;kou m&aacute; probl&eacute;m so spl&aacute;can&iacute;m. V m&aacute;ji <a href="http://www.realtytrac.com/trendcenter/">1 zo 400</a> nehnutelnost&iacute; bola umiestnen&aacute; na trh bankou.</p>
<p><strong>Partičky golfu</strong></p>
<p>Najlep&scaron;ie obchody sa uzatv&aacute;raj&uacute; pri golfe. Je to aj pr&iacute;ležitosť vhodiť niečo do charitat&iacute;vnej pokladničky a usmiať sa na fotku do lok&aacute;lnych nov&iacute;n &#8211; ak sa dar&iacute;. Mike Pascucci, majiteľ Sebonack Golf Club v Southamptone, s&aacute;m va&scaron;niv&yacute; golfista,&nbsp; zaznamenal počas kr&iacute;zy 50% prepad n&aacute;v&scaron;tevnosti. A situ&aacute;cia sa bohužial v pr&iacute;pade tohoto ukazatela zatiaľ v&yacute;razne nezlep&scaron;uje. Možno v&scaron;etci hraj&uacute; kolky.</p>
<p><strong>V&iacute;no</strong></p>
<p>Nie Hradn&aacute; Svieca, ani r&iacute;zling vla&scaron;sk&yacute;, ale arch&iacute;vne v&iacute;no dražen&eacute; na aukci&aacute;ch Christie&#8217;s je dobr&yacute;m predik&aacute;torom bud&uacute;ceho v&yacute;voja. Na rozdieľ od mnoh&yacute;ch in&yacute;ch artiklov, ľudia dražiaci v&iacute;no s&uacute; v&auml;č&scaron;inou &scaron;pekulanti, znažiaci sa zarobiť. Na jeseň 2009 sa cena vydražen&eacute;ho v&iacute;na oproti predo&scaron;l&eacute;mu roku takmer zdvojn&aacute;sobila. Dobr&eacute; znamenie.</p>
<p><strong>Dopyt po transporte</strong></p>
<p>Keď firmy odhaduj&uacute; n&aacute;rast objedn&aacute;vok, dopredu si zajednaj&uacute; &scaron;pedičn&eacute; služby. Richard Metzler z veľkej &scaron;pedičnej firmy Greatwide, ktor&aacute; dod&aacute;va tovar Wal-Martu, hovor&iacute;, že dopyt po ich služb&aacute;ch je e&scaron;te st&aacute;le nestabiln&yacute;.</p>
<p><strong>Ru&scaron;enie rezerv&aacute;cii v hoteloch</strong></p>
<p>Keď sa začn&uacute; vo veľkom ru&scaron;iť rezerv&aacute;cie v hoteloch, treba spozornieť, obchodu nevych&aacute;dzaj&uacute; pl&aacute;ny. V zime 2008/2009 nar&aacute;stlo ru&scaron;enie korpor&aacute;tnych rezerv&aacute;cii vo vychytenom Las Vegaskom hoteli MGM Mirage až na 50%, zatiaľ čo norm&aacute;lne sa pohybuj&uacute; okolo 15%.</p>
<p><a href="http://vybrali.sme.sk/c/Ruzove-kravaty-smeti-10-netradicnych-ekonomickych-indikatorov/"><br />
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<h5><a rel="lightbox[slideshow]" title="ruzova kravata" href="/images/2010/07/ruzova-kravata.jpg"><img height="533" width="400" alt="ruzova kravata" src="/images/2010/07/400/ruzova-kravata.jpg" /></a><br />
ružov&aacute; kravata</h5>
<img src="http://www.econoir.sk/?ak_action=api_record_view&id=741&type=feed" alt="" />

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<li><a href='http://www.econoir.sk/2009/12/15/ekonomicky-experiment/' rel='bookmark' title='Permanent Link: Ekonomický experiment na vlastnej koži'>Ekonomický experiment na vlastnej koži</a></li>
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		</item>
		<item>
		<title>PPP projekty &#8211; Partnerství státu a soukromého sektoru</title>
		<link>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/06/05/ppp-projekty-partnerstvi-statu-a-soukromeho-sektoru/</link>
		<comments>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/06/05/ppp-projekty-partnerstvi-statu-a-soukromeho-sektoru/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 05 Jun 2010 12:15:29 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Denisa</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Teórie]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Top]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.econoir.sk/?p=728</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[V současn&#233; době se st&#225;le častěji diskutuje o problematice PPP (Public Private Partnership) projektů. Partnerstv&#237; soukrom&#233;ho a veřejn&#233;ho sektoru, jak vypl&#253;v&#225; z n&#225;zvu, je hojně podporov&#225;no zejm&#233;na ze strany Evropsk&#233; Unie. V řadě zem&#237;ch Evropy už tak byly nejrůzněj&#353;&#237; projekty tohoto typu spu&#353;těny a jejich možn&#233; dopady na ekonomiku určitě stoj&#237; za zamy&#353;len&#237;. A co [...]


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</ol>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>V současn&eacute; době se st&aacute;le častěji diskutuje o problematice PPP (Public Private Partnership) projektů. Partnerstv&iacute; soukrom&eacute;ho a veřejn&eacute;ho sektoru, jak vypl&yacute;v&aacute; z n&aacute;zvu, je hojně podporov&aacute;no zejm&eacute;na ze strany Evropsk&eacute; Unie. V řadě zem&iacute;ch Evropy už tak byly nejrůzněj&scaron;&iacute; projekty tohoto typu spu&scaron;těny a jejich možn&eacute; dopady na ekonomiku určitě stoj&iacute; za zamy&scaron;len&iacute;.</p>
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<p>A co se tedy skr&yacute;v&aacute; pod zkratkou PPP? <a href="http://www.pppcentrum.cz/">PPP</a> je obecně uzn&aacute;van&yacute;m způsobem zaji&scaron;těn&iacute; veřejn&yacute;ch služeb nebo veřejn&eacute; infrastruktury na z&aacute;kladě dlouhodob&eacute;ho smluvn&iacute;ho vztahu, kde veřejn&yacute; a soukrom&yacute; sektor vz&aacute;jemně sd&iacute;lej&iacute; užitky a rizika vypl&yacute;vaj&iacute;c&iacute; ze zaji&scaron;těn&iacute; veřejn&eacute; infrastruktury nebo veřejn&yacute;ch služeb. Pokud se tedy st&aacute;t rozhodne investovat do dopravn&iacute; infrastruktury, zdravotnictv&iacute;, &scaron;kolstv&iacute; či jin&yacute;ch oblast&iacute; může se vydat klasickou cestou a vypsat veřejnou zak&aacute;zku na z&aacute;kladě kter&eacute; prob&iacute;h&aacute; soutěž mezi jednotliv&yacute;mi uchazeči. Jin&yacute; způsob v&yacute;běru vhodn&eacute;ho uchazeče pak představuj&iacute; PPP.</p>
<p>Pro tyto projekty je charakteristick&eacute;, že jakmile se st&aacute;t rozhodne realizovat investice např&iacute;klad do již zm&iacute;něn&eacute; dopravn&iacute; infrastruktury nast&aacute;v&aacute; prvn&iacute; f&aacute;ze projektu, kdy zvolen&iacute; poradci, např. firmy, technici, pr&aacute;vn&iacute; či ekonomičt&iacute; poradci posoud&iacute; zda bude pro dan&yacute; projekt v&yacute;hodněj&scaron;&iacute; vydat se cestou klasick&eacute; veřejn&eacute; zak&aacute;zky nebo zvolit model PPP. Již v t&eacute;to f&aacute;zi může doj&iacute;t k selh&aacute;n&iacute;, neboť tito &bdquo;poradci&ldquo; mohou b&yacute;t velmi snadno ovlivniteln&iacute; a z&aacute;měrně tak zvolit n&aacute;kladněj&scaron;&iacute; variantu. Pokud se tedy st&aacute;t rozhodne využ&iacute;t model PPP nast&aacute;v&aacute; druh&aacute; f&aacute;ze, tzv. soutěž o koncesion&aacute;ře, tedy o toho, kdo bude projekt realizovat a n&aacute;sledně provozovat. Vznikne tedy nov&aacute; společnost, založen&aacute; za &uacute;čelem realizace projektu, do kter&eacute; jsou zapojeny jak firmy tak i poradci apod. Koncesion&aacute;ř z&aacute;roveň mus&iacute; m&iacute;t s bankou sjedn&aacute;no financov&aacute;n&iacute; projektu a to až do v&yacute;&scaron;e 95 %. Veřejn&yacute; sektor tedy spl&aacute;c&iacute; ročn&iacute; poplatky např&iacute;klad poplatkem za dostupnost služby nebo umožn&iacute; soukrom&eacute;mu sektoru vyb&iacute;rat platby př&iacute;mo od uživatelů služby. Na konci projektu infrastruktura přech&aacute;z&iacute; do vlastnictv&iacute; veřejn&eacute;ho sektoru.</p>
<p>Za v&yacute;hody těchto projektů lze určitě považovat přenos rizik z veřejn&eacute;ho sektoru na sektor soukrom&yacute; a z&aacute;roveň efektivitu a kvalitu. Tento předpoklad vych&aacute;z&iacute; z toho, že soukrom&yacute; sektor se v průběhu realizace projektu bude snažit o co nejniž&scaron;&iacute; n&aacute;klady, a to použ&iacute;v&aacute;n&iacute;m dokonalej&scaron;&iacute;ch pracovn&iacute;ch postupů, a z&aacute;roveň o vysokou kvalitu, neboť př&iacute;padn&eacute; nekvalitně proveden&eacute; pr&aacute;ce by měly za n&aacute;sledek růst n&aacute;kladů soukrom&eacute;ho sektoru např. n&aacute;růst v&yacute;dajů na opravy silnice, kter&yacute; je v&aacute;z&aacute;n smlouvou na několik let. Jako dal&scaron;&iacute; v&yacute;hody se uv&aacute;d&iacute; motivace a tzv. hodnota za pen&iacute;ze (Value For Money), kterou se rozum&iacute; optim&aacute;ln&iacute; kombinace celoživotn&iacute;ch n&aacute;kladů projektu a zaji&scaron;těn&iacute; kvality uspokojuj&iacute;c&iacute; potřeby uživatelů, přičemž takov&aacute; nab&iacute;dka nemus&iacute; b&yacute;t vždy ta nejlevněj&scaron;&iacute;.</p>
<p>S těmito projekty je v&scaron;ak spojena i řada rizik. Jak bylo zm&iacute;něno v&yacute;&scaron;e jedn&iacute;m z nich je pr&aacute;vě role poradců a konzultantů, jejichž rozhodnut&iacute; nemus&iacute; b&yacute;t vždy transparentn&iacute;. Mezi dal&scaron;&iacute; nev&yacute;hody můžeme zařadit složitost stanoven&iacute; ceny projektu, kter&aacute; je do budoucna velmi těžce odhadnuteln&aacute;. Z m&eacute;ho pohledu je v&scaron;ak největ&scaron;&iacute;m probl&eacute;mem zadlužov&aacute;n&iacute; st&aacute;tu, kter&eacute; se může projevit až v del&scaron;&iacute;m časov&eacute;m obdob&iacute;. Celkov&aacute; v&yacute;&scaron;e n&aacute;kladů se nevykazuje najednou, ale i dluh, kter&yacute; nen&iacute; uv&aacute;děn ve statistik&aacute;ch zůst&aacute;v&aacute; dluhem a mus&iacute; se spl&aacute;cet Vl&aacute;da, kter&aacute; projekty schv&aacute;l&iacute;, si tak&eacute; může uvědomovat, že za několik let, kdy již nebudou tyto projekty v&yacute;hodn&eacute;, už nebude u moci a vyvodit jakoukoliv politickou odpovědnost je tedy t&eacute;měř nemožn&eacute;. V neposledn&iacute; řadě je nev&yacute;hodou těchto projektů složitost smluv a s n&iacute; souvisej&iacute;c&iacute; administrativn&iacute; n&aacute;klady stejně jako absence veřejn&eacute; kontroly.</p>
<p>Navzdory těmto rizikům se dnes PPP hojně využ&iacute;v&aacute; v řadě zem&iacute; cel&eacute;ho světa. Ve Velk&eacute; Brit&aacute;nii od roku 1992 začalo v&iacute;ce než 300 projektů s celkovou hodnotou investic přes 38 miliard anglick&yacute;ch liber. Podle N&aacute;rodn&iacute;ho kontroln&iacute;ho &uacute;řadu VB 88 % projektů bylo dokončeno v term&iacute;nu nebo dř&iacute;ve, a ž&aacute;dn&yacute; projekt nepřekročil svůj rozpočet pokud to nebylo způsobeno změnou zad&aacute;n&iacute; na ž&aacute;dost veřejn&eacute;ho sektoru.</p>
<p>V Česk&eacute; republice bylo zat&iacute;m spu&scaron;těno 10 projektů, z nichž 7 je zastaveno a dal&scaron;&iacute; jsou v různ&yacute;ch f&aacute;z&iacute;ch př&iacute;pravy. Z&aacute;roveň se uk&aacute;zaly v&yacute;znamn&eacute; nedostatky programu. K 30. z&aacute;ř&iacute; 2009 souhrn nesplacen&yacute;ch z&aacute;vazků st&aacute;tn&iacute;ho investora vůči stavebn&iacute;m firm&aacute;m, kter&eacute; se pod&iacute;lely na v&yacute;stavbě silnic a d&aacute;lnic činil 1 189 milionů korun. Stavebn&iacute; firmy tak dnes po st&aacute;tu mohou vyžadovat <a href="http://aktualne.centrum.cz/domaci/kauzy/clanek.phtml?id=668208">pen&aacute;le ve v&yacute;&scaron;i 200 milionů Kč</a> a dal&scaron;&iacute;ch 939 milionů Kč za to, že se stavby konzervovaly. Postupně tak doch&aacute;z&iacute; k neust&aacute;l&eacute;mu zvy&scaron;ov&aacute;n&iacute; v&yacute;dajů oproti jejich poč&aacute;tečn&iacute;m odhadům.</p>
<p>Řadu ne&uacute;spě&scaron;n&yacute;ch PPP projektů m&aacute; za sebou i Maďarsko. Jedn&iacute;m z nich je v&yacute;stavba d&aacute;lnice<a href="http://www.dialnice.info/viewtopic.php?f=25&amp;t=2947"> M1/M15</a>, kter&aacute; byla zah&aacute;jena v roce 1994. Koncesion&aacute;ř se zav&aacute;zal postavit a provozovat d&aacute;lnici po dobu trv&aacute;n&iacute; koncesn&iacute; smlouvy a převzal tak vedle rizik stavebn&iacute;ch i rizika finančn&iacute; a marketingov&aacute;. Celkov&eacute; n&aacute;klady byly 280 milionů EUR, z toho 20 % uhradil koncesion&aacute;ř z vlastn&iacute;ch zdrojů, a zbyl&yacute;ch 80 % tvořily dluhov&eacute; instrumenty. D&aacute;lnice M1 byla dokončena poč&aacute;tkem roku 1995, M15 pak v roce 1998. Tyto &uacute;seky byly dokončeny v term&iacute;nu a bez překročen&iacute; rozpočtov&yacute;ch n&aacute;kladů. Motorist&eacute; v&scaron;ak odm&iacute;tali platit vysok&eacute; m&yacute;to za už&iacute;v&aacute;n&iacute; d&aacute;lnice M1 a upřednostňovali alternativn&iacute; dopravn&iacute; cesty. Intenzita dopravy tedy nesplňovala optimistick&eacute; odhady, ze kter&yacute;ch vych&aacute;zelo financov&aacute;n&iacute; cel&eacute;ho projektu. Po volb&aacute;ch v roce 1998 se k moci dostala opozice a M1 byla převedena do vlastnictv&iacute; veřejn&eacute;ho sektoru.</p>
<h5><a rel="lightbox[slideshow]" title="dialnica" href="/images/2010/06/dialnica.jpg"><img height="300" width="400" alt="dialnica" src="/images/2010/06/400/dialnica.jpg" /></a><br />
&nbsp;</h5>
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		<title>Koľko stojí štátny bankrot?</title>
		<link>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/05/03/naklady-statneho-bankrotu/</link>
		<comments>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/05/03/naklady-statneho-bankrotu/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 03 May 2010 12:36:12 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Martin Vlachynský</dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[S&#250; aj kraj&#353;ie udalosti, ako &#353;t&#225;tny bankrot, na tom sa zhodne cel&#225; Eur&#243;pa a Amerika k tomu. Čo ak sa ale skutočne stane, že &#353;t&#225;t zbankrotuje, ak&#233; s&#250; n&#225;klady? Na t&#250;to ot&#225;zku odpovedaj&#250; vo svojej pr&#225;ci pre MMF z okt&#243;bra 2008 Eduardo Borenzstein a Ugo Panizza. &#352;t&#225;tny default (viac o &#353;t&#225;tnom defaulte/bankrote) je pre investorov [...]


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			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>S&uacute; aj kraj&scaron;ie udalosti, ako &scaron;t&aacute;tny bankrot, na tom sa zhodne cel&aacute; Eur&oacute;pa a Amerika k tomu. Čo ak sa ale skutočne stane, že &scaron;t&aacute;t zbankrotuje, ak&eacute; s&uacute; n&aacute;klady?</p>
<p>Na t&uacute;to ot&aacute;zku odpovedaj&uacute; vo svojej pr&aacute;ci pre MMF z okt&oacute;bra 2008 <a href="http://www.voxeu.org/index.php?q=node/4372">Eduardo Borenzstein</a> a <a href="http://www.lacea.org/portal/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=69">Ugo Panizza</a>.</p>
<p>&Scaron;t&aacute;tny default (viac o <a href="http://www.econoir.sk/2009/12/09/statny-bankrot/">&scaron;t&aacute;tnom defaulte/bankrote</a>) je pre investorov problematick&yacute;, pretože na rozdiel od bankrotu firmy si nem&ocirc;žu n&aacute;rokovať žiadne akt&iacute;va. Pr&aacute;ve vedomie n&aacute;kladnosti &scaron;t&aacute;tneho bankrotu umožňuje fungovanie trhu &#8211; investori jednoducho vedia, že &scaron;t&aacute;ty sa tomu bud&uacute; chcieť za každ&uacute; cenu vyhn&uacute;t.</p>
<p>Borenzstein a Panizza zhrnuli v&yacute;znamn&eacute; empirick&eacute; &scaron;t&uacute;die o &scaron;t&aacute;tnom defaulte a sami spracovali d&aacute;ta zo zhruba 250 defaultov za posledn&eacute; dve storočia. Identifikovali p&auml;ť r&ocirc;znych negat&iacute;vnych dopadov &scaron;t&aacute;tneho bankrotu:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Dopad na rast HDP</strong>: Rast HDP je o 1.2% niž&scaron;&iacute; v každom roku, počas ktor&eacute;ho je krajina v defaulte (Sturzenegger ud&aacute;va hodnotu 0.5-2%)</li>
<li><strong>Dopad na reput&aacute;ciu:</strong> Zhor&scaron;en&aacute; povesť znižuje &scaron;ancu požičať si na trhoch v bud&uacute;cnosti; je to jeden z hlavn&yacute;ch d&ocirc;vodov, prečo sa krajiny snažia splatiť aspoň re&scaron;trukturovan&eacute; dlhy. Čo sa samotn&eacute;ho pr&iacute;stupu k trhom t&yacute;ka, v&auml;č&scaron;ina kraj&iacute;n m&aacute; obnoven&yacute; pr&iacute;stup kr&aacute;tko po tom, čo re&scaron;trukturalizuje svoje dlhy (v s&eacute;rii juhoamerick&yacute;ch defaultov v 80.rokoch priemern&aacute; doba n&aacute;vratu na trhy bola 4 roky). Čo sa n&aacute;kladov na dlh (&uacute;rokov) t&yacute;ka, hist&oacute;ria defaultov m&aacute; vplyv na rating krajiny (ktor&yacute; je &uacute;zko korelovan&yacute; s &uacute;rokmi), ale trocha prekvapuj&uacute;co nie v dlhom obdob&iacute; (5 a viac rokov). Podobne, priamy dopad defaultu na &uacute;roky je vcelku kr&aacute;tkodob&yacute;.</li>
<li><strong>Dopad na medzin&aacute;rodn&yacute; obchod: </strong>Ot&aacute;zka, ako default vpl&yacute;va na medzin&aacute;rdn&yacute; obchod je nepr&iacute;li&scaron; vyjasnen&aacute;. Predpokladaj&uacute; sa dva prim&aacute;rne d&ocirc;vody &#8211; &quot;akt pomsty&quot; zo strany tratiacich investorov (t&aacute;to te&oacute;ria nem&aacute; veľa historick&yacute;ch podkladov, na druhej strane klesaj&uacute;ci z&aacute;ujem Nemcov o pobyt v Gr&eacute;cku bude možn&aacute; exempl&aacute;rnym pr&iacute;padom) a klesaj&uacute;ca kvalita exportu vzhľadom na zhor&scaron;en&yacute; pr&iacute;stup export&eacute;rov ku kapit&aacute;lu. Podľa autorov dopad na obchod existuje, ale op&auml;ť najm&auml; kr&aacute;tkodob&yacute;.</li>
<li><strong>Dopad na bankov&yacute; syst&eacute;m:</strong> Ak dom&aacute;ci rezidenti držia podstatn&uacute; časť &scaron;t&aacute;tneho dlhu, m&ocirc;že to viesť ku kolapsom niektor&yacute;ch dom&aacute;cich b&aacute;nk a dlhovej kr&iacute;ze (credit crunch). Autori pri&scaron;li k z&aacute;veru, že pokiaľ nenastane bankov&aacute; kr&iacute;za, samotn&yacute; &scaron;t&aacute;tny bankrot nevyvol&aacute;va dlhov&uacute; kr&iacute;zu v s&uacute;kromnom sektore.</li>
<li><strong>Politick&eacute; dopady:</strong> Bankrot krajiny prudko zvy&scaron;uje pravdepodobnosť zmeny vl&aacute;dy (18 z 19 &quot;bankrot&quot; vl&aacute;d od roku 1980 stratilo v n&aacute;sledn&yacute;ch voľb&aacute;ch hlasy). Podobne sa prudko znižuje životnosť jednotlivcov (hlavne ministrov financii). Preto je prirodzen&eacute;, že politici sa snažia oddialiť t&uacute;to nepr&iacute;jemn&uacute; udalosť. Odložen&eacute; bankroty pritom zvy&scaron;uj&uacute; obdobie neistoty a zbytočne vysk&yacute;ch &uacute;rokov a zvy&scaron;uj&uacute; t&yacute;m jeho n&aacute;klady.</li>
</ul>
<p>Zhrnut&eacute; &#8211; hoci autori prizn&aacute;vaj&uacute;, že kvantifikovanie n&aacute;kladov &scaron;t&aacute;tneho defaultu je n&aacute;ročn&eacute;, je nepochybn&eacute;, že t&aacute;to udalosť m&aacute; v&aacute;žny dopad. Av&scaron;ak tento je pomerne kr&aacute;tkodob&yacute; a krajina sa r&yacute;chlo otrasie &#8211; ale za predpokladu, že sa jej podar&iacute; r&yacute;chlo dostať zo stavu defaultu a re&scaron;trukturalizovať dlhy.</p>
<p>M&ocirc;žeme aplikovať situ&aacute;ciu Gr&eacute;cka a ostatn&yacute;ch &scaron;t&aacute;tov, ot&aacute;zne ost&aacute;va, nakoľko je ich pr&iacute;padn&yacute; bankrot porovnateľn&yacute; s hist&oacute;riou. &Scaron;t&aacute;tny bankrot v&auml;č&scaron;inou sprev&aacute;dza devalv&aacute;cia meny, ktor&aacute; v tomto pr&iacute;pade nie je možn&aacute;.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2008/wp08238.pdf">Cel&yacute; text</a></p>
<p><a href="http://vybrali.sme.sk/c/Kolko-stoji-statny-bankrot/"><br />
</a></p>
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		<title>Nuclear Deterrence: From the Cold War to Present Times</title>
		<link>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/04/29/nuclear-deterrence-present-cold-war/</link>
		<comments>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/04/29/nuclear-deterrence-present-cold-war/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 29 Apr 2010 20:07:03 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Martin Vlachynský</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Teórie]]></category>
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		<description><![CDATA[Introduction The mechanism of balance of power used to be simple. Sovereign units built bigger, better-equipped and better-trained armies than the opponent, all backed by an economic environment which was able to provide supplies to the soldiers. A process which never reached an end; there can could be always more populous armies and more effective [...]


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			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>Introduction</strong><br />
The mechanism of balance of power used to be simple. Sovereign units built bigger, better-equipped and better-trained armies than the opponent, all backed by an economic environment which was able to provide supplies to the soldiers. A process which never reached an end; there can could be always more populous armies and more effective weapons.</p>
<p>Nuclear weapon brought a change. Strategic arms reached a point, when even a relatively small and poor country is able to dispose with enough destructive power to erase the whole human society. Twenty years after the collapse of bipolar world, nuclear proliferation remains a hot topic. With nine countries possessing nuclear weapons (with some uncertainty about North Korean and Israel nuclear programs) and some other interested in the possibility of developing them, there are no exactly defined camps of opponents. What is the influence of nuclear weapons on the anarchic system, where &#8216;the best way to survive is to be especially powerful&#8217;? (Mearsheimer, 2007, pp.74). What was the impact of the end of Cold War?</p>
<p><strong>Nuclear weapons</strong><br />
Nuclear warfare is the most important milestone in the history of weapons. Hydrogen bombs, thousand times more effective than atomic (fission) explosives, with practically limitless potential explosive force to be constructed (Mandelbaum, 1981, pp.3) can be delivered by all kinds of ballistic or cruise missiles and artillery. Highly advanced missiles like Russian Topol-M, are able to penetrate any defense systems (Arms Control Association. 2000), making thus the first-strike unstoppable by any kind of defense.</p>
<p>With several thousand nuclear warheads being on alert, major nuclear exchange can result in total destruction of both opponents&#8217; within a few hours since the release of the first missile and also of world&#8217;s civilization through effects of radiation and changes in global climate (predicted effects of the so called &quot;nuclear winter&quot; or &quot;nuclear summer&quot;). There are more weapons of mass destruction developed in the 20th century; however, nuclear weapons have an outstanding position, due to the effectiveness of their deployment and their (at least hypothetical) ability to disarm an enemy by the first-strike. Although chemical or biological WMD can have similar effects to nuclear weapons in some occasions, it is considered that they do not share the same military importance for international relations (Mandelbaum, 1981).</p>
<p><strong>Nuclear Deterrence</strong><br />
Concept of deterrence is &#8216;the dissuasion of one adversary by another from undertaking hostile military action by convincing him that such an action would be unsuccessful or too costly since it would incur military counteraction.&#8217; (Buzan, 1987. pp. 174) and it should not be confused with defense. As Waltz writes: &#8216;deterrence is achieved not through the ability to defend, but through the ability to punish&#8217; (Sagan &amp; Waltz, 2003, pp.5).</p>
<p>It requires set of rules describing consequences of certain actions (Freedman, 2004).  Rational actor can use them to compare the gains and expenses of a desired action. In describing the possible range of these actions, Freedman uses &#8216;typology that never caught on&#8217; (Freedman, 2004, pp.35) from Herman Kahn to describe nature of the actions to be deterred. Type I. involves nuclear exchange between superpowers, type II. conventional or tactical nuclear attack (also on allies) and type III. other kinds of challenges. Freedman also describes two different kinds of deterrence itself: narrow (deterring certain action within war, for example use of WMD) or broad deterrence (deterring war generally).</p>
<p>Realists and liberals examining theories of nuclear deterrence perceive the situation created by the existence of nuclear weapons mostly optimistically (Lieber &amp; Press, 2006). Believing that nuclear weapons can increase the irrationality of starting a war beyond any limits makes some of the scholars to claim &#8216;more is better&#8217; (Sagan &amp; Waltz, 2003). From there is only one step to theory about nuclear peace, which (unlike democratic peace) can include all countries. Especially for the Cold War era it is broadly believed that nuclear deterrence was among the most important factors which kept USA and USSR away from open mutual war (Sagan &amp; Waltz, 2003; Buzan, 1987; Segal, Moreton, Freedman &amp; Baylis, 1983).</p>
<p>This optimistic approach can be counterweighted by more pessimistic idea, that &#8216;the H[ydrogen]-bomb reduces the likelihood of full-scale war, it increases the possibility of limited war pursued by widespread local aggression.&#8217; (Hart, 1960, cited in Krepon, 2003). This so called &quot;stability-instability paradox&quot; was found responsible for fuelling number of proxy wars during the Cold War. It is not in complete contradiction with &quot;more is better&quot; statement; we can say it changes this statement into &quot;total proliferation is better&quot;.</p>
<p><strong>Cold War</strong><br />
USA incorporated basic thoughts of nuclear deterrence soon after constructing first nuclear bomb (Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki can be considered as a deterrent action); however it was after Soviet nuclear test in 1949 that nuclear deterrence became standard part of military strategies of both superpowers. Mass introduction of sophisticated nuclear weapons in early sixties resulted in situation, where both superpowers were able to retaliate opponent&#8217;s first strike with enough power to turn nuclear war into mutual suicide. This military stalemate became known as Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) (Lieber &amp; Press, 2006). But even if there had been capability to minimize retaliation of a less developed nuclear opponent by a massive first-strike (as it used to be in the first half of 1950&#8242;s), the effect of just a single retaliating successful hit would have had disastrous consequences. As Waltz writes: &#8216;If any part of a force is invulnerable, all of the force is invulnerable.&#8217; (Sagan &amp; Waltz, 2003, pp.143)</p>
<p>US doctrine of &quot;Assured Destruction&quot; defined unacceptable damage as killing 20-30% of Soviet population with retaliating attack. Soviet doctrine included more complex war fighting strategies, but the potential devastating effect on both societies was similar (Segal, Moreton, Freedman &amp; Baylis, 1983). However, it is important to note, that MAD was not the only nuclear doctrine during the whole Cold War. While during Stalin era, official Soviet ideology stressed the inevitability of future mutual war (so deterrence was just a preparation for war), the USA changed official nuclear strategy from MAD to targeting selective military targets during Reagan era (Newman &amp; Dando, 1982).</p>
<p>Besides both superpowers, also United Kingdom and France quickly followed to introduce nuclear arsenal accompanied with deterrence doctrines. Both countries intended to have independent deterrent capability, but while United Kingdom&#8217;s nuclear forces were supposed to closely coordinate their activities with US forces (Segal, Moreton, Freedman &amp; Baylis, 1983)], French nuclear armament was not incorporated into NATO systems and was intended to serve solely for France&#8217;s protection. This separate stance of France resulted in (unsuccessful) efforts to spread the effect of deterrence also on the North African countries (Boniface, 1998) and was taken into consideration during the siege of Dien Bien Phu (Sagan &amp; Waltz, 2003).</p>
<p>Nuclear deterrence played role not only in the West-East international relations during the cold war. Notably, it helped to keep the status quo during the USSR-PRC border clashes in 1969 (Betts, 1987). Then India introduced nuclear weapon in 1974 to deter China and to reverse the shifting balance of power in times of uncertainty about the actions of USA and Pakistan, which seemed to come closer to China in the seventies. (Sagan &amp; Waltz, 2003, Kaysen, McNamarra &amp; Rathjens, 1991).</p>
<p>These situations refer to what Cohen and Frankel call &quot;visible nuclearization&quot; (Cohen &amp; Frankel, 1991). They also point out the opposite case of proliferation; &quot;opaque nuclearization&quot;. Named also as the second generation proliferation, it can be characterized by no testing, denial of possession of nuclear weapons, no presence of any direct nuclear threats, lack of military deployment and doctrines and finally by closed debate and organizational insulation. The Cold War period is to be remembered mainly as a period of vast visible proliferation; however, there were cases of opaque nuclearization.</p>
<p>South Africa constructed several nuclear weapons during the late seventies. While having only limited military use, they were supposed to improve South African isolated political power in case of massive involvement of Soviet Union in border wars with Angola. South Africa dismantled its nuclear weapons after the government changeover in early nineties (Albright, 1994).</p>
<p>While South Africa is (probably) a closed case, Israel serves as a paradigm case of opacity also for the post-cold war era. Despite multiple changes of government, Israeli officials never admitted possession of nuclear weapons and claim not to be the first to introduce them into the region. Since this position was convenient both for USA and USSR (Frankel, 1991), these leading powers never put pressure on Israel, despite it is believed with certainty that Israel nuclear stockpile counts several hundreds of various weapons. They were supposed to serve as a political tool influencing both US and USSR actions in the region (GlobalSecurity.org, 200-) and still can be considered the ultimate guarantee of the existence of Israel. Situation of Israel has been similar to the situation of India &ndash; surrounded by adverse environment and with strong deprived minority inside the country. Despite following similar goals, they chose different forms of nuclear deterrence visibility. The main reason is obvious &ndash; adversaries are in possession of nuclear weapons in India&#8217;s case, compared to politically unpleasant official introduction of nuclear armament into region in Israeli case.</p>
<p>As it was presented, nuclear deterrence had several forms during the Cold War &#8211; deterrence among superpowers (USA and USSR), local deterrence (USSR and China, India and China), nuclear deterrence as an ultimate safety precaution in hostile environment (Israel), finally as a political tool, and symbol of regional dominance and prestige (South Africa).</p>
<p>Despite these peculiarities, the most important deterrence was between the Western and Eastern bloc. Considering the overwhelming conventional forces of Warsaw Pact in Europe, it is easy to find rationale for precisely conducted nuclear deterrence strategies. With the fall of Iron Curtain and collapse of Soviet empire, this accent on one-way oriented nuclear deterrence disappeared. However, the stockpiles of nuclear warheads (and the means of their transport) remained virtually untouched.</p>
<p><strong>Post-Cold War deterrence</strong></p>
<p>The Cold War era balance of power was about the balance of two opposing ideologies, which are enemies from definition and the rational calculations were quite easy. Since NATO&#8217;s Massive Retaliation strategy (following the ideas of Assured Destruction) had determination to prevent aggressor from &#8216;ability to shape the character of war&#8217; (Segal, Moreton, Freedman &amp; Baylis, 1983, pp.83) and considering Warsaw Pact&#8217;s conventional superiority, there was no place for local clashes. Any aggression would have been terminated. Cold War deterrence offered the only result of superpowers&#8217; war calculations &ndash; MAD. Rational actor did not have different choice than to decide not to incite open aggression. What of these transferred to post-Cold War times?</p>
<p>Accepting the realists&#8217; description of world as an anarchic system, where self-help is the only guaranteed way to secure own existence, nuclear proliferation and consequent deterrent acting may seem as inevitable. There is notion among some structural realists that modern nuclear deterrence will lead to similar consequences as during the Cold War &ndash; higher stability (Sagan &amp; Waltz, 2003). However, there are some serious challenges to this idea.</p>
<p>Firstly, MAD should be announced dead. The fall of Eastern Bloc not only lowered the direct military tension, but also brought other important implications, considering nuclear deterrence. Economic cooperation among involved nuclear powers has been rising, making the mutual business connections essential for the parties involved (especially in the USA-Chinese case, but also considering vital function of the export of natural resources for Russia or booming mutual trade between India and Pakistan in the last decade). Add at least modest increase of democracy in Russia and China during the last two decades and the concept of MAD gets even further behind the borders of rationality.</p>
<p>There is also another aspect, which makes deterrence via MAD obsolete: the gap in military capabilities of the USA and second biggest nuclear power (Russia) sharply rose. Some works (Lieber &amp; Press, 2006) are suggesting, that USA got very close to the position, where it will be able to prevent or minimalize effects of Russian nuclear response on a surprising first strike, not to mention the rest of potential enemies, who posses minimal amounts of long range ballistic missiles (according to data from Lieber and Press, in 2006 China possessed stock of only 18 missiles able to reach the USA, compared to Russian&#8217;s 3500). Similarly, limited amounts of warheads and low protection against the first strike makes MAD hardly possible even for neighboring countries, like China and India.</p>
<p>However, nuclear deterrence itself is not dead, quite the opposite &ndash; recent nuclear test performed by North Korea, activities of Iran believed to be aimed at construction of nuclear weapon, but also the effort of the USA to place some parts of the ballistic defense system in Central Europe show us that nuclear deterrence is still alive. <br />
In the bipolar world weaker actors who felt endangered by one of the superpowers or by a local third party could chose a protector, who was happy to offer them cooperation, condescendingly overlooking their moral character. Regional balance of power was shifting with countries joining and changing alliances, global balance of power was maintained by MAD.</p>
<p>It is questionable if a big regional shift of balance can be caused by acquisition of nuclear weapons. It would be possible in case the nukes could be used for military (strategic or just tactical) reasons. Allowing field use of nuclear weapons on any theatre would represent unseen precedent with impact on global stability with hardly predictable results and would probably provoke immediate reaction of leading powers. Israeli opaque nuclearization did not stop its enemies from attacking Israel in 1967 nor in 1973. However, it is believed Israeli&#8217;s nuclear alert speeded the military help from the USA (GlobalSecurity.org). North Korean nuclear test did not reshape the balance in the region, on the other hand narrowed the range of response actions for the opponents.</p>
<p>Nuclear proliferation is still considered an ultimate mean of security. Nuclear weapon can smooth up the huge power differences between modern countries (so visible in Iraq and finally not so much visible in Afghanistan) and make all prepared military calculations obsolete. Nuclear weapons are not the way to spread one&#8217;s power anymore &ndash; they are means to secure power at the level of surviving. Just a single warhead hitting Soul or Tel Aviv may be enough to deter any actions against North Korea or Iran. No matter how small, nuclear arsenal would have to be destroyed by the first strike and in current situation it would be hardly possible to achieve it with conventional weapons. Again, it would involve introduction of nuclear weapons on battlefield with negative consequences outweighing the potential positive gains. This narrowing of strategic options is the most important impact of nuclear deterrence in these days. However, it cannot stop wars at all &ndash; it can just change their forms.</p>
<p>Middle East region is ideal location for a demonstration. Israel has been concerned about its safety and existence from the first days of foundation, which led to efforts to gain nuclear weapons. Arab neighbors like Egypt or Jordan have spent only tepid efforts to acquire nuclear capability and they do not consider it top-level priority&#8217; (Evron, 1991, pp. 50). Neither Israel nor other countries represent threat for their existence. On the other hand, Iran may consider threat from the Western countries legitimate and nuclearization is a natural way to securitize status quo.</p>
<p>As suggested by Freedman, it is inevitable for deterrence to be carefully leveraged. While too little deterrence can be ineffective, too much deterrence can achieve opposite reaction than intended (Freedman, 2004). Introducing nuclear deterrence is a big qualitative jump in military deterrence capabilities of any country. While it is irrational to make aggressive steps when it is already implemented, it is fully rational to try to either deter opponents from gaining the weapon, or actively stop him by an aggressive action, as it could be observed in Iraq, where both Iran and Israel bombed the Osirak reactor back in 80&#8242;s as a response to his flirting with nuclear weapons program.</p>
<p>So far, nuclear deterrence was described as a clear mechanism, assuming the generally optimistic nature of it. Waltz, the biggest advocate of proliferation, presents five reasons, why nuclear deterrence can ensure higher stability and even &quot;nuclear peace&quot; among countries (Sagan &amp; Waltz, 2003, pp.6-7).</p>
<ol>
<li>The more country gains in war and the closer to the final victory, the higher possibility of nuclear retaliation as defender&#8217;s conventional forces lose the ability to inflict damage on the progressing enemy.</li>
<li>The costs of war are extremely high and more carefully taken into consideration</li>
<li>Nuclear weapon better defend than conquest territory</li>
<li>Will to use nuclear weapons is stronger on the side of a defender.</li>
<li>Nuclear strength of an adversary can be more easily counted before declaring war than the conventional one</li>
</ol>
<p>However, also this mechanism can fail. The source of failure is the key position of actors&#8217; rationality in the scheme. To act rationally, actors need information and causal relations between them. &#8216;Deterrence works best when the targets are able to act rationally, and when the deterrer and the deterred are working within sufficiently shared normative framework so that it is possible to inculcate a sense of appropriate behaviour in defined situations.&#8217; (Freedman, 2004, pp. 5).</p>
<p>While it is hard to set normative for conventional deterrence, it is almost impossible to set them for nuclear deterrence. There were established unofficial ten commandments of nuclear deterrence (Krepon, 2003):</p>
<ul>
<li>Do not change the territorial status quo in sensitive areas by use of force.</li>
<li>Avoid nuclear brinksmanship.</li>
<li>Avoid dangerous military practices.</li>
<li>Put in place special reassurance measures for ballistic missiles and other nuclear forces.</li>
<li>Implement properly treaty obligations, risk-reduction, and confidence-building measures. Agree on verification arrangements, including intrusive monitoring.</li>
<li>Establish reliable lines of communication, between political leaders and between military leaders.</li>
<li>Establish redundant and reliable command and control arrangements as well as intelligence-gathering capabilities to know what the other side is up to, especially in a crisis.</li>
<li>Keep working hard on these arrangements. Improve them. Don&rsquo;t take anything for granted.</li>
<li>Hope for plain dumb luck or divine intervention.</li>
</ul>
<p>Obviously, these commandments are more stressing the lack of proper rules than serving any other purpose (what is &#8216;dangerous military practice&#8217;?). How can exact rules be set for something, what is suicidal (MAD) or what has unforeseeable consequences (field use of nuclear weapons). MAD is so irrational, that it is impossible to set exact and rational rules. &#8216;Once basic deterrence becomes mutual, it negates extended deterrence by definition.&#8217; (Betts, 1987, pp.10). These rules can be set for an isolated tactical nuclear attack, but since the mechanism of chain reaction of tactic exchange turning into strategic one is hardly constructible, leaving tactical (or low scale strategic) use of nuclear weapons surrounded by extreme deal of uncertainty. Nuclear attack on homeland would most probably cause nuclear retaliation, but what about nuclear attack on allies &ndash; would it be worth starting a nuclear exchange? What will be the reaction on conventional attack on homeland?</p>
<p>Deterrence can easily turn into unwanted aggression, or can fail once the opponent will be able to count the consequences more precisely. This great deal of insecurity embedded in the concept of nuclear deterrence leads to continuous arm race. However, this arms race is not intended to stop the first strike, but to prevent the second strike capability of an enemy. This situation can fuel the potential of aggression &ndash; once my technical progress gets me out of the stale mate, I have strong incentive to initiate the first strike and prevent reestablishing the previous balance. Consequently, the opponent has incentive to initiate first-strike, before one&#8217;s disbalancing technology becomes operational. As prof. O&#8217;Connell mentions, this situation is further complicated not only by &#8216;inherent limitation in existing capacities to calculate the effectiveness of the others&#8217; military technological capacity, but also from publicized exaggeration of opponents&#8217; weapons and using worst case analyses to ensure maximum security&#8217; (O&#8217;Connell, 1982. pp.46). In his view, nuclear deterrence may be just a period of time, during which two enemies are trying to break the stalemate. Action-reaction dynamic of deterrence is unstable and with given arm race it cannot be reproduced infinitely.</p>
<p>Another important criticism comes from organization theory perspective, represented especially by Scott Sagan. He challenges rationality of organizations responsible for the deterrence. &#8216;They have inherent limits on calculation and coordination and use simplifying mechanisms to understand and respond to uncertainty in the outside world.&#8217; (Sagan &amp; Waltz, 2003, pp.51) This leads to regular malfunction in routines and potential accidents. With ongoing proliferation, the probability of fatal malfunctions rises. These can have either form of technical accident (false alarms, accidental explosions) or agency failure (unauthorized use). Professor O&#8217;Connell underlines it: &#8216;The logic of technology whether civil or military is now global but there is no hope of social organization matching that logic for another generation&#8217; (O&#8217;Connell, 1982. pp.46).<br />
Conclusion</p>
<p>Nuclear deterrence, the ability to turn an aggression into an irrational act by having potential to inflict unbearable costs to the aggressor, emerged as soon as at least two actors developed nuclear weapons and the means to deliver them. Despite serving more purposes in various ways in different regions of the world, nuclear deterrence of the Cold War era was symbolized by the outstanding hegemony of two nuclear superpowers and by the terminal mechanism of MAD. With the fall of Iron Curtain, nuclear deterrence achieved new qualitative range. While the irrationality of nuclear exchange among leading powers went beyond the Cold War limits and nuclear deterrence as a way of world domination is becoming obsolete, in the regional conflicts it may play increasing role. With the loss of bipolarity and two possible protectors, military nuclear technology becomes the tool of ultimate survival in the eyes of some actors.</p>
<p>In spite of the very slow proliferation during the last two decades, it is more than possible that other countries will try to develop nuclear armament. It is not only question of non-democratic states but also of democratic countries like Japan, South Korea or some countries in Latin America, which may reconsider their non-nuclear status. Although USA and other western possessors of nuclear weapons may be deemed as protectors of their unarmed allies, their rational base of their willingness to respond to nuclear threats to these allies may be questioned.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, nuclear proliferation and nuclear deterrence may hardly increase stability and peace, as it is sometimes suggested. Post Cold War deterrence is being undertaken now in a more complicated and interconnected world, where setting exact action-reaction rules in terms of nuclear engagement is impossible. Without these rules, nuclear deterrence is more an ad-hoc craft than a well working mechanism. The instability is underlined by possible organizational malfunctions and agency failures, especially considering recent rise of rootless threats, like terrorism, which cannot be responded by standard military strategies.</p>
<p>Nuclear deterrence will remain part of our world, but it can hardly regain the strategic dominance it had in the period that ended twenty years ago. Both global and regional actors will have to incorporate the potential of nuclear retaliation into their strategies, their range of actions will be narrower, but this will not stop the actions, which shift the balance of power.</p>
<p><em>Martin Vlachynsky 2009; Prepared for Theories and Concepts in International Relations class, University of Aberdeen</em></p>
<p><a href="http://www.econoir.sk/stuff/Nuclear-Deterrence-Cold-War-Present.pdf"><strong><em>Pdf version download</em></strong></a></p>
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<p><strong>References</strong></p>
<p>Albright, David. 1994. South Africa and the affordable bomb. Bulletin of the atomic scientists. 50(4), pp. 37-47. Available at http://books.google.com/books?id=VAwAAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA37&amp;dq#v=onepage&amp;q=&amp;f=false [Accessed at November 22 2009]</p>
<p>Betts, Richard K., 1987. Nuclear blackmail and nuclear balance. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.</p>
<p>Boniface, Pascal. 1998. French Nuclear Weapons Policy After the Cold War. [pdf] The Atlantic Council of the United States. Available at http://www.acus.org/docs/9808-French_Nuclear_Weapons_Policy_After_Cold_War.pdf [Accessed November 22 2009]</p>
<p>Buzan, Barry. ed., 1987. The international politics of deterrence. London: F. Pinter.<br />
Dunne, T., Kurki, M. &amp; Smith, S.  eds., 2007.  International relations theories : discipline and diversity. Oxford : Oxford University Press.</p>
<p>Cohen, A. &amp; Frankel, B., 1991 Opaque nuclear proliferation. In: Frankel, Benjamin. ed., 1991.Opaque nuclear proliferation: methodological and policy implications. London, England; Portland, OR: F. Cass,</p>
<p>Evron, Yair. 1991. Opaque proliferation: the Israeli case. In: Frankel, Benjamin. ed., 1991.Opaque nuclear proliferation: methodological and policy implications. London, England; Portland, OR: F. Cass,</p>
<p>Frankel, Benjamin. ed., 1991.Opaque nuclear proliferation: methodological and policy implications. London, England; Portland, OR: F. Cass,</p>
<p>Freedman, Lawrence. 2004. Deterrence. Cambridge: Polity Press.</p>
<p>Kaysen, C. McNamarra, R.S. &amp; Rathjens, G.W., 1991. Nuclear weapons after the Cold War.  Foreign Affairs, 70 ( 4), pp. 95-110.</p>
<p>Krepon, Michael. 2003. The Stability-Instability Paradox, Misperception, and Escalation Control in South Asia. [pdf] Washington DC: South Asia Program Available at http://www.stimson.org/southasia/pdf/kreponmay03.pdf [Accessed November 17 2009].</p>
<p>Lieber, K.A. &amp; Press, D.G., 2006. The End of MAD? The Nuclear Dimension of U.S. Primacy.  International Security, 30 (4), pp. 7&ndash;44</p>
<p>Mandelbaum, Michael. 1981. The nuclear revolution : international politics before and after Hiroshima. Cambridge University Press.</p>
<p>Mearsheimer, J.J. 2007 Structural realism. In: Dunne, T., Kurki, M. &amp; Smith, S.  eds., 2007.  International relations theories : discipline and diversity. Oxford : Oxford University Press.</p>
<p>O&#8217;Connell, J., 1982. What is deterrence? In: Newman, B. &amp; Dando, M. eds., 1982. Nuclear deterrence: implications and policy options for the 1980s. Tunbridge Wells, Kent : Castle House Publications.</p>
<p>Sagan, S.D. &amp; Waltz, K.N., c2003. The spread of nuclear weapons: a debate renewed : with new sections on India and Pakistan, terrorism, and missile defense. New York; London: W.W. Norton.</p>
<p>Segal, G. Moreton, E. Freedman, L. &amp; Baylis, J., 1983. Nuclear war and nuclear peace. London: Macmillan.</p>
<p>Arms Control Association. 2000. Russia Approves Topol-M; Warns Missile Could Defeat U.S. Defense. [Online] Available at http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2000_06/topoljun [Accessed at November 23 2009]</p>
<p>GlobalSecurity.org. [200-]. Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) &#8211; Strategic Doctrine. [Online] Available at http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/israel/doctrine.htm [Accessed at November 22 2009]</p>
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		<title>Medzinárodný obchod je vždy výhodný</title>
		<link>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/04/27/medzinarodny-obchod-teoria/</link>
		<comments>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/04/27/medzinarodny-obchod-teoria/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 27 Apr 2010 19:27:24 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Martin Vlachynský</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Teórie]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Top]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Č&#237;na n&#225;s zaplav&#237; lacn&#253;mi bagaňami, plechom a vif&#243;nom a my ostaneme chudobn&#237;, pretože nič nedok&#225;žeme predať. Preto s&#250; cl&#225; a in&#233; obchodn&#233; bari&#233;ry potrebn&#233;. Je to tak? Blbosť. Medzin&#225;rdon&#253; obchod zvy&#353;uje bohatstvo za každ&#253;ch okolnost&#237;. N&#225;&#353; demon&#353;trat&#237;vny svet sa sklad&#225; len z dvoch kraj&#237;n: Slovenska a Č&#237;ny. Vyr&#225;baj&#250; sa len dva produkty: syr (v kilogramoch) [...]


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			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Č&iacute;na n&aacute;s zaplav&iacute; lacn&yacute;mi bagaňami, plechom a vif&oacute;nom a my ostaneme chudobn&iacute;, pretože nič nedok&aacute;žeme predať. Preto s&uacute; cl&aacute; a in&eacute; obchodn&eacute; bari&eacute;ry potrebn&eacute;. Je to tak? Blbosť. Medzin&aacute;rdon&yacute; obchod zvy&scaron;uje bohatstvo za každ&yacute;ch okolnost&iacute;.</p>
<p>N&aacute;&scaron; demon&scaron;trat&iacute;vny svet sa sklad&aacute; len z dvoch kraj&iacute;n: Slovenska a Č&iacute;ny. Vyr&aacute;baj&uacute; sa len dva produkty: syr (v kilogramoch) a top&aacute;nky (v p&aacute;roch). Každ&yacute; deň sa produkuje 10 hod&iacute;n.</p>
<p><strong>Absol&uacute;tne v&yacute;hody</strong></p>
<p>Te&oacute;ria absol&uacute;tnych v&yacute;hod bola rozpracovan&aacute; už Adamom Smithom. Z&aacute;kladn&yacute; predpoklad je, že každ&aacute; z kraj&iacute;n je lep&scaron;ia než t&aacute; druh&aacute; v produkcii jedn&eacute;ho z v&yacute;robkov. Konkr&eacute;tny pr&iacute;klad:</p>
<table width="198" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 149pt;">
<col width="70" style="width: 53pt;" />
<col width="64" span="2" style="width: 48pt;" />
<tbody>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td width="70" height="20" style="height: 15pt; width: 53pt;" class="xl63"><strong>&nbsp;</strong></td>
<td width="64" style="border-left: medium none; width: 48pt;" class="xl63">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; syr</td>
<td width="64" style="border-left: medium none; width: 48pt;" class="xl63">&nbsp; top&aacute;nky</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td height="20" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15pt;" class="xl63">Slovensko</td>
<td align="right" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;" class="xl63">10</td>
<td align="right" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;" class="xl63">4</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td height="20" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15pt;" class="xl63">Č&iacute;na</td>
<td align="right" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;" class="xl63">5</td>
<td align="right" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;" class="xl63">8</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>Predpokladajme, že vo svete bez obchodu bud&uacute; obe krajiny produkovať každ&yacute; z v&yacute;robkov polovicu času. Teda v&yacute;sledok dennej produkcie bude tak&yacute;to:</p>
<table width="198" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 149pt;">
<col width="70" style="width: 53pt;" />
<col width="64" span="2" style="width: 48pt;" />
<tbody>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td width="70" height="20" class="xl66" style="height: 15pt; width: 53pt;">&nbsp;</td>
<td width="64" class="xl67" style="border-left: medium none; width: 48pt;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; syr</td>
<td width="64" class="xl68" style="border-left: medium none; width: 48pt;">&nbsp; top&aacute;nky</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td height="20" class="xl69" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15pt;">Slovensko</td>
<td align="right" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">50</td>
<td align="right" class="xl70" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">20</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td height="20" class="xl69" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15pt;">Č&iacute;na</td>
<td align="right" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">25</td>
<td align="right" class="xl70" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">40</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td height="21" class="xl71" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15.75pt;">Svet</td>
<td align="right" class="xl72" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">75</td>
<td align="right" class="xl73" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">60</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>A teraz si predstavme, že sa zavedie obchod a každ&aacute; z kraj&iacute;n sa &scaron;pecializuje na to, v čom je lep&scaron;ia:</p>
<table width="198" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 149pt;">
<col width="70" style="width: 53pt;" />
<col width="64" span="2" style="width: 48pt;" />
<tbody>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td width="70" height="20" class="xl66" style="height: 15pt; width: 53pt;">&nbsp;</td>
<td width="64" class="xl67" style="border-left: medium none; width: 48pt;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; syr</td>
<td width="64" class="xl68" style="border-left: medium none; width: 48pt;">&nbsp; top&aacute;nky</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td height="20" class="xl69" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15pt;">Slovensko</td>
<td align="right" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">100</td>
<td align="right" class="xl70" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">0</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td height="20" class="xl69" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15pt;">Č&iacute;na</td>
<td align="right" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">0</td>
<td align="right" class="xl70" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">80</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td height="21" class="xl71" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15.75pt;">Svet</td>
<td align="right" class="xl72" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">100</td>
<td align="right" class="xl73" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">80</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>Medzin&aacute;rodn&yacute; obchod priniesol svetu o 25 k&iacute;l syra a 20 p&aacute;rov top&aacute;ok viac.</p>
<p><strong>Komparat&iacute;vne v&yacute;hody</strong></p>
<p>Čo ak je jedna z kraj&iacute;n lep&scaron;ia vo v&yacute;robe oboch produktov? Bude sa obchodovať? A kto bude čo vyr&aacute;bať? T&uacute;to ot&aacute;zku rozpracoval v te&oacute;rii komparat&iacute;vn&yacute;ch v&yacute;hod David Ricardo (hoci nebol prv&yacute;, čo sa ňou zaoberal). Pr&iacute;klad:</p>
<table width="198" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 149pt;">
<col width="70" style="width: 53pt;" />
<col width="64" span="2" style="width: 48pt;" />
<tbody>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td width="70" height="20" class="xl65" style="height: 15pt; width: 53pt;">&nbsp;</td>
<td width="64" class="xl65" style="border-left: medium none; width: 48pt;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; syr</td>
<td width="64" class="xl65" style="border-left: medium none; width: 48pt;">&nbsp; top&aacute;nky</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td height="20" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15pt;">Slovensko</td>
<td align="right" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">1</td>
<td align="right" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">1</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td height="20" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15pt;">Č&iacute;na</td>
<td align="right" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">5</td>
<td align="right" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">10</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>V&yacute;sledok bez obchodu:</p>
<table width="198" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 149pt;">
<col width="70" style="width: 53pt;" />
<col width="64" span="2" style="width: 48pt;" />
<tbody>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td width="70" height="20" class="xl66" style="height: 15pt; width: 53pt;">&nbsp;</td>
<td width="64" class="xl67" style="border-left: medium none; width: 48pt;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; syr</td>
<td width="64" class="xl68" style="border-left: medium none; width: 48pt;">&nbsp; top&aacute;nky</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td height="20" class="xl69" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15pt;">Slovensko</td>
<td align="right" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">5</td>
<td align="right" class="xl70" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">5</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td height="20" class="xl69" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15pt;">Č&iacute;na</td>
<td align="right" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">25</td>
<td align="right" class="xl70" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">50</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td height="21" class="xl71" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15.75pt;">Svet</td>
<td align="right" class="xl72" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">30</td>
<td align="right" class="xl73" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">55</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>Č&iacute;na m&aacute; v&yacute;hodu v produkcii oboch v&yacute;robkov, ale v top&aacute;nkach je oveľa lep&scaron;ia (10x) ako v syre (5x). Preto sa zameria na produkciu top&aacute;nok, jej alternat&iacute;vne n&aacute;klady s&uacute; niž&scaron;ie (1 p&aacute;r top&aacute;nok ju stoj&iacute; obetu 0.5kg syra) oproti Slovensku (kde 1 p&aacute;r top&aacute;nok stoj&iacute; 1kg syra). Predpokladajme, že celkov&aacute; &uacute;roveň oboch v&yacute;robkov nesmie byť men&scaron;ia, ako v pr&iacute;pade bez obchodu. Preto:</p>
<table width="198" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 149pt;">
<col width="70" style="width: 53pt;" />
<col width="64" span="2" style="width: 48pt;" />
<tbody>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td width="70" height="20" class="xl66" style="height: 15pt; width: 53pt;">&nbsp;</td>
<td width="64" class="xl67" style="border-left: medium none; width: 48pt;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; syr</td>
<td width="64" class="xl68" style="border-left: medium none; width: 48pt;">top&aacute;nky</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td height="20" class="xl69" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15pt;">Slovensko</td>
<td align="right" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">10</td>
<td align="right" class="xl70" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">0</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15pt;">
<td height="20" class="xl69" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15pt;">Č&iacute;na</td>
<td align="right" class="xl65" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">20</td>
<td align="right" class="xl70" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">60</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td height="21" class="xl71" style="border-top: medium none; height: 15.75pt;">Svet</td>
<td align="right" class="xl72" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">30</td>
<td align="right" class="xl73" style="border-top: medium none; border-left: medium none;">60</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>Č&iacute;na presunula časť v&yacute;roby od syra k top&aacute;nkam, v&yacute;padok vynahrad&iacute; orient&aacute;cia Slovenska na syr. Svet si vďaka obchodu polep&scaron;il o 5 p&aacute;rov top&aacute;nok denne.</p>
<p>Posledn&aacute; ot&aacute;zka, ktor&uacute; treba zodpovedat: Svet z&iacute;ska, ale nestrat&iacute; jedna krajina na &uacute;kor druhej? Nie. Slovensko m&aacute; prebytok 5kg syra a Č&iacute;na 10 p&aacute;rov top&aacute;nok denne. Slovensku ch&yacute;ba 5 p&aacute;rov a Č&iacute;ne 5kg syra. Nez&aacute;lež&iacute;, či Č&iacute;na k&uacute;pi 5kg syra za 9 alebo 7 p&aacute;rov top&aacute;nok, v oboch pr&iacute;padoch bud&uacute; mať oba &scaron;t&aacute;ty viac, ako v pr&iacute;klade bez obchodu.</p>
<p>Takže keď v&aacute;s zase bude politik, alebo lobysta tej-ktorej komory presviedčať, že obchodn&eacute; bari&eacute;ry (<em>veď len tak&eacute; maličk&eacute;&#8230;</em>) pom&ocirc;žu Slovensku, už viete, že je to populistick&aacute; blbosť.</p>
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<h5><a rel="lightbox[slideshow]" title="obchodna lod" href="/images/2010/04/obchodna-lod.jpg"><img width="400" height="276" alt="obchodna lod" src="/images/2010/04/400/obchodna-lod.jpg" /></a><br />
&nbsp;</h5>
<img src="http://www.econoir.sk/?ak_action=api_record_view&id=621&type=feed" alt="" />

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		<slash:comments>4</slash:comments>
		</item>
		<item>
		<title>$140 Million for Pollock?! Contemporary Art Market Explained</title>
		<link>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/03/30/art-market-price/</link>
		<comments>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/03/30/art-market-price/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 30 Mar 2010 20:51:54 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Martin Vlachynský</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Teórie]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.econoir.sk/?p=581</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Recent breathtaking prices of art were blunted by the actual global recession &#8211; according to The Economist, average prices fell 40% from its peak in 2007 (Rocco &#38; Thorton, 2009a), nevertheless the market value of art is still thrilling. When mentioning enormous art prices, we mainly remain in the realm of contemporary art. Out of [...]


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			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Recent breathtaking prices of art were blunted by the actual global recession  &#8211; according to The Economist, average prices fell 40% from its peak in 2007 (Rocco &amp; Thorton, 2009a), nevertheless the market value of art is still thrilling.</em></p>
<p>When mentioning enormous art prices, we mainly remain in the realm of contemporary art. Out of the ten most expensive art pieces, nine items were created after 1900 and five in a post WWII period (Whats Art, 2009). What are the mechanisms which are driving up price of contemporary art?</p>
<p>Let&#8217;s look at the frame. There are two basic contemporary art markets and two types of interaction on them. Interaction can be either in a form of auction, or direct sale (often with an agent acting as an intermediary). Considering markets, primary market deals art pieces coming directly from studios and artists themselves. On the other hand, secondary (or resale) market deals production of both living and dead artists, which is owned usually by private collectors.</p>
<p>Although the border between these markets is a bit foggy, there is a certain difference in market behavior. Primary market collectors are often more risk takers, each aiming at single emerging author and creating long term personal involvement with an author (Rocco &amp; Thorton, 2009b). Nevertheless, it is the resale market which boasts the record prices; therefore we will try to keep its perspective.</p>
<p>What factors shape the supply side? Most important to consider is the heterogeneity. Art is highly unique, but it depends on the buyer&#8217;s motivation, if he is able to accept de Kooning as a substitute of Bacon. While on primary market probably not, more investment oriented resale buyer may consider it. Baumol (1985) in his canonical work considers private collectors as monopolists; however having in mind the latest boom and bust of contemporary art market (Times Online, 2009), I believe secondary contemporary art market is fuelled by broader range of motivations and allows substitution to some extent.</p>
<p>Primary market is influenced by its specific production function. Art is a risky employment, with strong non-pecuniary returns (this topic is broadly covered in [Cowen &amp; Tabarrok, 2000]). Outcome can be improved by adding capital or workforce only in a very limited way; higher productivity of artist can often change the inner character of his production. Artist&#8217;s death has another serious impact on the supply side &ndash; it further lowers the reproducibility to zero.</p>
<p>Secondary market is supplied mainly by private collectors, who can retain production of the primary market. With virtually constant primary production, all supply fluctuations are influenced by global market and business cycle and reflecting investment and speculation motives, with personal and corporate bankruptcies (and subsequent collections&#8217; sell offs) on the one hand and art as a security on the other. Similarities and differences (no dividend and no asset based technical value) between stock market and art market are broadly described in Baumol (1985).</p>
<p>Therefore the supply of resale market is bounded with &#8216;boom and bust&#8217; excess or insufficient liquidity, where market price is just a subjective indicator for proper timing of holding or selling private collections. Ceteris paribus supply is constant in relation with price.</p>
<p>The key factor of contemporary art demand is to decompose the utility value of such art. Sagot-Duvauroux suggests three components of art&#8217;s value &ndash; physical properties, date of sale and place of sale (Sagot-Duvauroux, 2003). I add the fourth one &ndash; a buyer. While on the metal sheets market object is far more important than the subject of exchange, on the art market the person of buyer and its characteristics are crucial and most complicated variable.</p>
<p>Physical properties of an art have various influent over buyers pricing (oiled canvas has zero alternate use compared to alternate use of 8601 diamonds on Hirst&#8217;s For the Love of God), but this contribution can be considered fixed. Physical property involves also author&#8217;s signature, which is a form of branding (Sagot-Duvauroux, 2003) and symbolizes cultural, national and historical value of the art. This value is obviously variable of time and cultural trends.</p>
<p>Considering globalize and open world with excellent communication channels and abstracting local taxes and other distortions, the variable of place of sale can be omitted in our analysis.</p>
<p>Most important component is buyer&#8217;s interest. Art serves two kinds of interest &ndash; speculative and psychological. Speculative interest is related with cyclical behavior already mentioned in the supply side analysis. Demand is driven by potential gains (price growth compared to inflation and alternate investments) and risks (change in the market mood, discovery of lost pieces). Again, price is more a buy-sell indicator.</p>
<p>Psychological factors are of two kinds:</p>
<p>1.	Aesthetic pleasure &ndash; negative elasticity. Buyer&#8217;s satisfaction grows with rising number of art pieces acquired for the same price.</p>
<p>2.	Effects of prestige &ndash; positive elasticity. Satisfaction comes from ownership of prestigious expensive art piece, or from winning a bidding war &#8211; an example of Veblen good. High price of an art piece can be considered an internal part of his characteristics</p>
<p>We see basic background of the mechanism; how this mechanism drives the prices of contemporary art upon the prices of other art styles and makes art one of the priciest product on the global market?</p>
<p>The process begins at the stage of creation. As Cowen and Tabarok (2000) write, the cognoscenti (art consumers with special taste) have to outbid the masses and prevent the artist from mass production. As we described, subsequent art market has characteristics of monopoly with minimal options for substitution and extremely limited supply (especially when compared to the vast numbers of potential buyers). Finally, an institute of minimal price comes to question &ndash; both dealers and auction houses often use guaranteed minimal price to protect artist&#8217;s and institution&#8217;s reputation, which may be damaged by unexpectedly low price. (Salmon, 2008). This makes the prices downward-rigid to some extent.</p>
<p>Such a limited supply meets with the demand for contemporary art. This has cyclical component, which drives the prices up in conjecture times. As we cannot say contemporary art is more aesthetic than renaissance art or impressionists, the pleasure component does not have specific influence; however the effect of Veblen good is important.</p>
<p>Contemporary art can be considered kind of a top fashion, which well serves the prestige of both individuals and corporations. Due to the perceived ability to hold value in a long term, they even tend to shift consumption of other luxury goods (yachts, cars, social events&hellip;) to consumption of art during recession (Rocco &amp; Thorton, 2009a), thus moderating the potential market price drops.</p>
<p>This combination of market structure, prestigious position of the most fashionable art and recent years of global prosperity and subsequent hunt for investments drives the prices of contemporary art up.</p>
<p><em>Martin Vlachynsky</em></p>
<p><em>Prepared for Business Economics class, University of Aberdeen. </em></p>
<p><a href="http://www.econoir.sk/2010/02/10/moderne-umenie-cena/"><strong>Slovak translation</strong></a></p>
<p><a href="http://econoir.sk/stuff/Contemporary_Art_Market_Explained.pdf"><strong>pdf version</strong></a></p>
<p><iframe scrolling="no" frameborder="0" src="http://rcm-uk.amazon.co.uk/e/cm?lt1=_blank&amp;bc1=FFFFFF&amp;IS2=1&amp;bg1=FFFFFF&amp;fc1=000000&amp;lc1=0000FF&amp;t=eco0f-21&amp;o=2&amp;p=8&amp;l=as1&amp;m=amazon&amp;f=ifr&amp;asins=1845133021" style="width: 120px; height: 240px;" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0"></iframe><iframe scrolling="no" frameborder="0" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" style="width: 120px; height: 240px;" src="http://rcm.amazon.com/e/cm?lt1=_blank&amp;bc1=FFFFFF&amp;IS2=1&amp;bg1=FFFFFF&amp;fc1=000000&amp;lc1=0000FF&amp;t=eco06-20&amp;o=1&amp;p=8&amp;l=as1&amp;m=amazon&amp;f=ifr&amp;asins=0060889578"></iframe> <iframe scrolling="no" frameborder="0" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" style="width: 120px; height: 240px;" src="http://rcm.amazon.com/e/cm?lt1=_blank&amp;bc1=FFFFFF&amp;IS2=1&amp;bg1=FFFFFF&amp;fc1=000000&amp;lc1=0000FF&amp;t=eco06-20&amp;o=1&amp;p=8&amp;l=as1&amp;m=amazon&amp;f=ifr&amp;asins=0230610226"></iframe> <iframe scrolling="no" frameborder="0" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" style="width: 120px; height: 240px;" src="http://rcm-uk.amazon.co.uk/e/cm?lt1=_blank&amp;bc1=FFFFFF&amp;IS2=1&amp;bg1=FFFFFF&amp;fc1=000000&amp;lc1=0000FF&amp;t=eco0f-21&amp;o=2&amp;p=8&amp;l=as1&amp;m=amazon&amp;f=ifr&amp;asins=071399990X"></iframe></p>
<p><strong>References</strong></p>
<p>Baumol, William J., 1985. Unnatural value: Or art investment as floating crap game. Working Papers Number: 85-25 C.V. Starr Center for Applied Economics, New York University, [Online] Available at <a href="http://econ.as.nyu.edu/docs/IO/9398/RR85-25.pdf">http://econ.as.nyu.edu/docs/IO/9398/RR85-25.pdf</a> [Accessed 29 November 2009]</p>
<p>Cowen, T. &amp; Tabarrok, A., 2000. An Economic Theory of Avant-Garde and Popular Art, or High and Low Culture. Southern Economic Journal, [Online]. 67(2), pp. 232-253<br />
Available at <a href="http://mason.gmu.edu/~atabarro/AvantGarde.pdf">http://mason.gmu.edu/~atabarro/AvantGarde.pdf</a> [Accessed 28 November 2009]</p>
<p>Rocco, F. &amp; Thorton, S., 2009a. Suspended animation. The Economist: Special report, 393(8659), pp. 3-6.</p>
<p>Rocco, F. &amp; Thorton, S., 2009b. New or secondhand. The Economist: Special report, 393(8659), pp. 6-7.</p>
<p>Salmon, Felix. 2008. The Economic Paradoxes of Contemporary Art. Portfolio.com [Online] Available at <a href="http://www.portfolio.com/views/blogs/market-movers/2008/07/28/the-economic-paradoxes-of-contemporary-art/">http://www.portfolio.com/views/blogs/market-movers/2008/07/28/the-economic-paradoxes-of-contemporary-art/</a> [Accessed 1 December 2009].</p>
<p>Sagot-Duvauroux, D., 2003. Art prices. In: R. Towse, ed. 2003. A handbook of cultural economics. Edward Elgar Publishing. [Online] Ch.5.</p>
<p>Times Online, 2009. How the contemporary art bubble burst [Online] Available at <a href="http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article6275738.ece">http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article6275738.ece</a> [Accessed 29 November 2009]  Whats Art, 2009. Top 10 Most Expensive Art [Online] Available at <a href="http://whats-art.blogspot.com/2009/04/top-10-most-expensive-art.html">http://whats-art.blogspot.com/2009/04/top-10-most-expensive-art.html</a> [Accessed 1 December 2009].</p>
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		<title>Bubliny a demografia</title>
		<link>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/03/09/bubliny-a-demografia/</link>
		<comments>http://www.econoir.sk/2010/03/09/bubliny-a-demografia/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 09 Mar 2010 14:51:41 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Martin Vlachynský</dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[Te&#243;ria hospod&#225;rskych cyklov je krvav&#253;m bojiskom ekon&#243;mie a (skoro) každ&#225; &#353;kola pon&#250;ka tie svoje spr&#225;vne pr&#237;činy, od nenechav&#253;ch paprč&#237; centr&#225;lnej banky až po prehnit&#233; z&#225;klady samotn&#233;ho kapitalizmu. Nie tak často počut&#253;m vysvetlen&#237;m je demografia. Teda, ani nie tak demografia, ako sk&#244;r v&#253;kyvy (kr&#225;sne zubat&#233; slovo, &#353;koda že v&#253;vyvy nič neznamen&#225;) populačn&#233;ho trendu. Pravideln&#233; hospod&#225;rske cykly [...]


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			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Te&oacute;ria hospod&aacute;rskych cyklov je krvav&yacute;m bojiskom ekon&oacute;mie a (skoro) každ&aacute; &scaron;kola pon&uacute;ka tie svoje spr&aacute;vne pr&iacute;činy, od nenechav&yacute;ch paprč&iacute; centr&aacute;lnej banky až po prehnit&eacute; z&aacute;klady samotn&eacute;ho kapitalizmu. Nie tak často počut&yacute;m vysvetlen&iacute;m je demografia.</p>
<p><span id="more-509"></span></p>
<p>Teda, ani nie tak demografia, ako sk&ocirc;r v&yacute;kyvy (kr&aacute;sne zubat&eacute; slovo, &scaron;koda že v&yacute;vyvy nič neznamen&aacute;) populačn&eacute;ho trendu. Pravideln&eacute; hospod&aacute;rske cykly sa tradične pripisuj&uacute; zmen&aacute;m z&aacute;sob (Kitchinove cykly), či skokov&eacute;mu technick&eacute;mu pokroku (Kondratievove cykly), ake dnes sa na probl&eacute;m pozrieme pr&aacute;ve z pohľadu populačn&yacute;ch zmien. Životn&yacute; cyklus jendotlivca zaujal ekon&oacute;mov už d&aacute;vno, stač&iacute; spomen&uacute;ť Friedmana. Bombastick&uacute; chuť mu dal až Harry Dent, ktor&eacute;ho kniha <em>Great Boom Ahead</em> z roku 1993 skončila ako bestseller.</p>
<p>Dent v 80. rokoch vytvoril te&oacute;riu spotrebnej vlny (<a href="http://www.equitiesmagazine.com/article_harry_dent.php">Spending Wave</a>) založen&uacute; na jednoduchom princ&iacute;pe. Ľudia maj&uacute; tendenciu spotrebov&aacute;vať najviac v &scaron;tyridsiatke &#8211; kupuje sa najv&auml;č&scaron;&iacute; dom, platia sa n&aacute;ročn&iacute; t&iacute;nedžeri, m&aacute;me niekoľko rodinn&yacute;ch &aacute;ut, dovolenky, chatu. S postupuj&uacute;cim vekom spotreba prirodzene zase kles&aacute;. Ak tento cycklus agregujeme na cel&eacute; obyvateľstvo, boom&amp;bust je na svete. Keď je (z nejak&eacute;ho d&ocirc;vodu, najčastej&scaron;ie &scaron;t&aacute;tnej <a href="http://econoir.blogspot.com/2008/09/ttna-podpora-rodn.html">propopulačnej politiky</a>) v obyvateľstve najv&auml;č&scaron;&iacute; podiel &scaron;tyridsiatnikov, m&aacute;me hospod&aacute;rsky boom. Keď začn&uacute; t&yacute;to baby boomeri odch&aacute;dzať do d&ocirc;chodku, nastane naopak pokles cel&eacute;ho hospod&aacute;rstva.</p>
<p>Dent, vzdel&aacute;n&iacute;m nie ekon&oacute;m, ale finančn&yacute; profesion&aacute;l, využil t&uacute;to te&oacute;riu na zostavenie niekoľko odv&aacute;žn&yacute;ch predpoved&iacute; &#8211; ktor&eacute; zlyhali. Jeho progn&oacute;zy o tom, že index Dow Jones koncom prv&eacute;ho desaťročia dosiahne hranicu 40,000 bodov, mu vyniesli titul &quot;<a href="http://www.maxfunds.com/?q=node/319">Ultim&aacute;tny &Scaron;arlat&aacute;n</a>&quot; Ako spr&aacute;vny biznisman m&aacute; za sebou samozrejme siln&eacute; promo, a tak na jeho str&aacute;nkach sa doč&iacute;tate niečo presne opačn&eacute;. Osobne som v tomto skeptik, ale čo skutočne (ne)predpovedal m&ocirc;žu prezradiť len majitelia prv&yacute;ch vyadan&iacute; jeho kn&iacute;h. Každop&aacute;dne Dentove investičn&eacute; rady založen&eacute; na demografii (a občasn&eacute; z&aacute;sahy do čierneho) mu vytvorili skupinu oddan&yacute;ch priaznivcov ktor&iacute; ho označuj&uacute; za zvestovateľa kr&iacute;zy, podobne ako <a href="http://econoir.blogspot.com/2008/12/ako-sa-smiali-schiffovm-predpovediam.html">Petra Schiffa</a>. (Čo je podla mňa pekn&aacute; blbosť, ale budiž)</p>
<p>Vytvorenie te&oacute;rie a jej praktick&eacute; aplikovanie s&uacute; dve rozdielne veci, a Dentov ne&uacute;spech nezastavil in&yacute;ch na tejto ceste. V ned&aacute;vnom <a href="http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/bc01cba8-17fd-11df-91d2-00144feab49a.html?nclick_check=1">reporte od Barclays</a> (origin&aacute;l bohužial len za l&oacute;ve) analytik Tim Bond podal detailnej&scaron;ie vysvetlenie kr&iacute;zy, založen&eacute; na demografickom v&yacute;voji. Za kr&iacute;zu m&ocirc;že populačne podmienen&aacute; zmena v dopyte po invest&iacute;ci&aacute;ch obyvateľov USA. Na začiatku 80.rokov tam gener&aacute;cia povojnov&yacute;ch baby boomerov začala vo veľkom &scaron;poriť na d&ocirc;chodok na 401k &uacute;čtoch (&scaron;peci&aacute;lny, dočasne daňovo zv&yacute;hodnen&yacute; &uacute;čet, tvoren&yacute; portf&oacute;liom investičn&yacute;ch produktov od akci&iacute; po dlhopisy, kam m&ocirc;žu zamestnanci presmerovať časť svojich pr&iacute;jmov, s pr&iacute;padn&yacute;m pr&iacute;spevkom zamestn&aacute;vateľa &#8211; n&aacute;&scaron; druh&yacute; pilier prenesen&yacute; do extr&eacute;mu).</p>
<p>Bežn&iacute; americk&iacute; obyvatelia zrazu začali po celom svete zh&aacute;ňať invest&iacute;cie, ktor&eacute; v odpovedi začali&nbsp; neprirodzene r&aacute;sť. Prv&eacute; probl&eacute;my sa prejavili v roku 1997 pri &aacute;zijskej kr&iacute;ze, ďal&scaron;&iacute;m krokom bola internetov&aacute; bublina v 2001 a vrchol tu m&aacute;me dnes. Baby boomeri id&uacute; vo veľkom do d&ocirc;chodku a invest&iacute;cie vytvoren&eacute; na ich dopyt padaj&uacute; ako domčeky z kariet (v prievane).</p>
<p>T&aacute;to te&oacute;ria sa okamžite dočkala kritiky <a href="http://www.hsdent.com/blog/2010/02/17/demographics-and-stocks-right-conclusion-wrong-reasons/">priamo od Dentov&yacute;ch ľud&iacute;</a>, ktor&iacute; považuj&uacute; 401k &uacute;čty bežn&yacute;ch Američanov za pr&iacute;li&scaron; bezv&yacute;znamn&eacute;. Rozhoduj&uacute;ci s&uacute; bohat&iacute; ľudia (ktor&iacute; na d&ocirc;chodok &quot;sporia&quot; inak) a ich spotreba, nie &uacute;spory.</p>
<p>Akademick&aacute; obec Denta pomerne ignoruje (nepodarilo sa mi n&aacute;jsť relevantn&uacute; kritiku), av&scaron;ak dovol&iacute;m si tvrdiť, že postaviť v&scaron;ak cel&uacute; te&oacute;riu na niečom, ako je demografick&yacute; v&yacute;voj, je mierne povedan&eacute; zcestn&eacute;. Nielenže to ignoruje d&ocirc;ležit&eacute; faktory, ako je &uacute;rokov&aacute; miera, alebo fi&scaron;k&aacute;lna politka. Už samotn&yacute; predpoklad ak&eacute;hosi homog&eacute;nneho demo-ekonomick&eacute;ho v&yacute;voja ťažko n&aacute;jde predobraz v re&aacute;lnom svete. Demografick&yacute; v&yacute;voj vo svete je veľmi rozdielny &#8211; tak&aacute; Č&iacute;na m&aacute; kompletne in&eacute; zloženie obyvateľstva ako Nemecko. A aj v samotnom USA spom&iacute;nan&yacute; demografick&yacute; prechod vďaka imigrantom <a href="http://www.nationmaster.com/country/us/Age_distribution">prebieha vcelku pokojne</a>.</p>
<p>Ak by aj prebiehal demografick&yacute; prechod tak, ako si ho predstavuje t&aacute;to te&oacute;ria, neznamen&aacute; to e&scaron;te nič. Samotn&iacute; Dentovi obhajcovia si vo vy&scaron;&scaron;ie spom&iacute;nanom čl&aacute;nku dali protiargument: Ak nemaj&uacute; vplyv 401k &uacute;čty, (pretože bohat&iacute; sa spr&aacute;vaj&uacute; inak), prečo by mala mať vplyv spotreba? Bohat&iacute; investuj&uacute; (z pohľadu životn&eacute;ho cyklu) inak ako stredn&aacute; vrstva, teda je možn&eacute;, že aj spotrebov&aacute;vaj&uacute; inak ako stredn&aacute; vrstva (Hugo Hefner nech&aacute;va pozdravovať). Ak teda už nepr&iacute;jmeme rovno Friedmanovu te&oacute;riu permanentn&eacute;ho pr&iacute;jmu a vyhladenej spotreby.</p>
<p>Starnutie obyvateľstva určite nie je bez vplyvu na ekonomick&yacute; v&yacute;voj (pretože na ten m&aacute; vplyv v&scaron;etko). Ale veriť, že n&aacute;s čak&aacute; dek&aacute;da marazmu len preto, že sme o niečo zostarli, je prehnan&eacute;. Ale dobre sa o tom p&iacute;&scaron;u blogy a platen&eacute; finančn&eacute; newsletters.</p>
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